Density of Infusoria On The Substrate of Banana Leaves, Ketapang Leaves, Rice Straw and Corn Husk

Nowadays after crops are harvested, majority of farmers tend to burn their fields to get rid of agricultural waste which causes toxic air pollution to humans and environments. The objective of this research was to screen five agricultural wastes for their capability for mushroom mycelium cultivation. These five substrates consist of rice straw, corn husk, sugarcane baggage, rice husk and coffee ground. The straw mushroom was isolated from fresh basidiocarp into a pure culture, and it was used as an inoculum in this study. The mushroom mycelium was cultured on agar media containing each type of agricultural wastes and incubated at 25°C for 6 days. Colony diameters of the mushroom growing on the surface of the media were measured. The results show that the straw mushroom grew best on the medium containing rice straw and corn husk. Therefore, these two substrates were selected for further study on mushroom cultivation in a jar experiment. There were three treatments including (1) corn husk, (2) rice straw, and (3) a combination of rice straw and corn husk (ratio 1:1). The jars were incubated at 25°C for 8 weeks. The density of mushroom mycelia was observed and recorded. The results show that the straw mushroom did not grow on corn husk, but it grew well on rice straw. In the meantime, this mushroom grew best on a combination of rice straw and corn husk. In conclusion, corn husk has potential to be used as an alternative material for mushroom cultivation and it should be used in combination with rice straw.

Timing of application of organic materials to seed sowing and the type of material used are fundamental to maximizing nutrient availability and productivity of maize. A pot experiment was carried out at the University for Development Studies, Nyankpala near Tamale to determine (1) the optimum planting date of maize after the incorporation of untreated organic materials (OM) and (2) the effect of different organic materials on maize productivity based on the concept of organic nutrient management. 4 × 5 factorial experiment laid out in a randomized complete block design and replicated thrice was used. The four organic materials used were: Biochar (B), Rice straw (RS), Rice husk (RH) and Grounded groundnut shell (GGS) and the five planting dates were: 7 days after incorporation (DAI) of OM (PD1), 14 DAI of OM (PD2), 21 DAI of OM (PD3), 28 DAI of OM (PD4) and 35 DAI of OM (PD5). 3L pots, each with a surface area of 0.0314m² were filled with soil mixed thoroughly with 156.2g OM, leaving the top 10 cm for watering. Parameters assessed were significantly influenced (P≤0.05) by the application of OM, such that days to seedling emergence, plant height, number of leaves, and total dry matter were optimised with the application of Biochar and Grounded groundnut shells. Rice straw and Rice husk supported the least growth performance of maize. Earliest crop seedling emergence was observed when maize was planted 21 - 35 DAI. Total dry matter production, similar to other measured parameters was optimised at 21 to 35 DAI of OM. Grounded groundnut shell likewise Biochar enhanced the parameters over Rice straw and the least was Rice husk. Resource poor farmers could utilise untreated Grounded groundnut shell and Biochar as organic fertilizer source in crop production when planting is done 21 days after OM incorporation in the Guinea savannah zone of Ghana. Keywords : Soil fertility, Biochar, Rice straw, Rice husk, Grounded groundnut shells

Mycelium-based composites (MBCs) are characterized as biodegradable materials derived from fungal species. These composites can be employed across a range of industrial applications that involve the manufacturing of packaging materials as well as the manufacturing of buildings, furniture, and various other household items. However, different fungal species and substrates can directly affect the functional properties of MBCs, which ultimately vary their potential to be used in many applications. In this study, the mechanical, physical, and chemical properties of MBCs made from four different fungal species (Ganoderma fornicatum, Ganoderma williamsianum, Lentinus sajor-caju, and Schizophyllum commune) combined with three different types of lignocellulosic residues (sawdust, corn husk, and rice straw) were investigated. The results indicate that differences in both the type of lignocellulosic residues and the fungal species could affect the properties of the obtained MBCs. It was found that the MBCs obtained from sawdust had the highest degree of density. Moreover, MBCs obtained from S. commune with all three types of lignocellulosic residues exhibited the highest shrinkage value. The greatest degree of water absorption was observed in the MBCs obtained from rice straw, followed by those obtained from corn husk and sawdust. Additionally, the thermal degradation ability of the MBCs was observed to be within a range of 200 to 325 °C, which was in accordance with the thermal degradation ability of each type of lignocellulosic residue. The greatest degrees of compressive, flexural, impact, and tensile strength were observed in the MBCs of G. williamsianum and L. sajor-caju. The results indicate that the MBCs made from corn husk, combined with each fungal species, exhibited the highest values of flexural, impact, and tensile strength. Subsequently, an analysis of the chemical properties indicated that the pH value, nitrogen content, and organic matter content of the obtained MBCs were within the following ranges: 4.67−6.12, 1.05−1.37%, and 70.40−86.28%, respectively. The highest degree of electrical conductivity was observed in MBCs obtained from rice straw. Most of the physical and mechanical properties of the obtained MBCs were similar to those of polyimide and polystyrene foam. Therefore, these composites could be used to further develop relevant strategies that may allow manufacturers to effectively replace polyimide and polystyrene foams in the future.

The enhancement of protein content in grains is interesting because starch is the main energy component used in beef cattle feeds. Corn malt-sactic is a modified corn grain with increase protein content and improve digestibility through the process of malt germination and microbial fermentation. Therefore, the effects of feeding malt-sactic from corn grain as a high protein energy source in diet were investigated on rumen fermentation, nutrient digestibility, blood metabolites, and growth performance in beef heifers. Sixteen of 1-year-old Brahman crossbred growing beef heifers with an initial weight of 220 ± 24.5 kg were randomly assigned into 4 different rations according to completely randomized design (CRD). Experimental treatments were corn grain or corn malt-sactic mixed concentrates with roughage sources as follow, T1; corn grain mixed concentrate with corn husk, T2; con grain mixed concentrate with rice straw, T3; malt-sactic mixed concentrate with corn husk, and T4; corn malt-sactic mixed concentrate with rice straw. The results showed that total feed intake and digestibility of dry matter, crude protein, NDF and ADF were significantly higher in the heifers fed corn malt-sactic mixed concentrate diet than corn mixed concentrate diet (p < 0.05). Ruminal pH post-feeding, blood urea nitrogen, and blood glucose were not different among treatments (p > 0.05). Body weight gain and average daily gain were significantly higher (p < 0.05), while feed conversion ratio was lower in corn malt-sactic mixed concentrate diet as compared with corn mixed concentrate diet (p < 0.05). The source of roughage did not affect rumen fermentation, nutrient digestibility, blood metabolites, or growth performance (p > 0.05). Results indicated that using corn malt-sactic as an ingredient in beef heifer diets can improve digestibility and growth performance. HIGHLIGHTS The addition of corn malt-sactic enhances both malt germination and microbial fermentation. Incorporating a corn malt-sactic mixed concentrate diet boosts heifers' feed intake and improves digestibility. Utilizing a corn malt-sactic mixed concentrate diet leads to improved Average Daily Gain (ADG) and Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) in heifers. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

The aim of this research was to 1) determine the effect of the use of rice husk, wood shavings,rice straw as litter material on litter quality for broiler during the finisher phase in closed house, 2)determine the best type of litter material on litter quality for broiler during the finisher phase in closedhouse. The duration of the research was 26 days. The research was started from 15 April to 10 May2014 in the closed house owned by PT. Rama Jaya Lampung Krawang Sari Village, the District ofNatar,Southern Lampung regency.This research was conducted using a completely randomized design (CRD) with three levels oftreatment and six replications. The treatment levels were the types of litter material (i.e. rice husk,wood shavings, chopped straw and rice). The samples were 270 broilers which were divided into 18plots. Therefore, there were 15 broilers in each plot (per square meter). The data were statisticallyanalyzed using ANOVA with 5% significance level. Duncan test with 5% significance level wasconducted for further testing should the ANOVA obtained any significant results.The results showed that(1) the use of rice husk , wood shavings and rice straw as the litter materials inclosed house showed a significant effect (P 0.05) on ammonia levels, pH, and litter temperature. (2) The litter materials of rice husk and rice strawin a closed house improved the litter

Thailand is one of the major agricultural production countries in the world. Therefore, large amounts of agricultural waste are generated as by-products of the agroindustry. The wastes are usually discarded or burnt, resulting in environmental pollution. The main goal of this research was to evaluate the use of agricultural waste for mushroom cultivation. A total of 15 mushroom isolates were recovered from mother spawns and basidiocarps. They were screened for their cellulolytic enzyme activity on Czapek agar using carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) as the sole carbon source. Two isolates of the oyster mushrooms, Pleurotus pulmonarius PP6 and Pleurotus ostreatus PO3, produced the best enzyme activities. To observe the mycelial growth on agricultural waste, the two oyster mushroom candidates were cultured in jars containing five different types of agricultural waste: corn husk, rice straw, coconut meal, coconut husk and sugarcane bagasse, and the jars were incubated at 25°C for six weeks. The results show that both isolates grew best on coconut meal, producing very densely packed mycelia. Meanwhile, corn husk and rice straw were also good sources for oyster mushroom cultivation. This study shows that these three substrates have the potential to be utilized in mushroom cultivation on a commercial scale.

Cellulose nanosphere (CNS) is a novel material isolated through delignification, bleaching, acid hydrolysis, dialysis, and sonication of cellulose fibers from agricultural wastes such as corn husk and rice straw. Comparative examination through multiple characterizations of CNS from these cellulose sources was conducted to investigate its potential applications. Corn husk cellulose nanospheres (CHCNS) and rice straw cellulose nanospheres (RSCNS) were characterized by its chemical characteristics, crystallinity, surface morphology and thermal stability. FTIR showed the same transmittance patterns for both CNS samples. The peaks for CHCNS and RSCNS in the NMR analysis were comparable, and the presence of toluene enabled the CNS dissolve better in DMSO-d6. Higher crystallinity index was calculated in CHCNS than in RSCNS according to XRD analysis. TEM analysis demonstrated that CHCNS has shorter diameter than RSCNS. Lower onset degradation temperature relative to their corresponding bleached cellulose fiber was determined through TG Analysis. Biomedical applications such as drug delivery, wound dressings and tissue engineering are the most suitable applications based on the profiles of both CNS samples.

This study investigates the environmental issue of air pollution (PM 2.5) from agricultural waste in Thailand and promotes the utilization of agricultural wastes by using their chemical compositions, especially cellulose content. The fourth readily available varieties of agricultural waste, such as rice straw, corn husk, hemp shive, and durian rind, were selected to evaluate their fiber morphology and chemical properties. Subsequently, dialdehyde carboxymethyl cellulose (DCMC) was produced from four kinds of agricultural wastes under synthesis conditions involving a pH value of 3.0, a reaction temperature of 35 °C, a mass ratio of NaIO4 and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) of 1:3, and a reaction time of 4 h. The formation of aldehyde substitution was confirmed by the degree of oxidation (DO) and aldehyde content. To characterize the DCMC properties determined, Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), gel permeation chromatography (GPC), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used. The results revealed that rice straw, corn husk, hemp shives, and durian rinds presented high DO and aldehyde content; the aldehyde contents were more significant than 30% and 50%, respectively. The highest DO and aldehyde contents were 38.63 and 77.23%, respectively, for the hemp shives. The characterized data in recent research illustrated that the added value of agricultural wastes could be increased by DCMC production, which can be applied as a crosslinking reagent for future novel biopolymer film applications.

The dataset contains biomass quantity in fresh tonne per year and biomass supply cost in Ringgit Malaysia (MYR) per fresh tonne for 4 different truck capacities (1, 3, 10, 26 tonnes), transport distances in km. This data is given for 10 different categories of biomass (Forest logging waste, Oil palm frond, Oil palm trunk, Empty fruit bunch, Palm pressed fifre, Plywood mill waste, Rice husk, Rice straw, Rubberwood, Sawdust). The data is computed with GRASS GIS software. The computation was performed for potential biorefinery locations in each of the 89 districts in Peninsular Malaysia. Out of these 89 candidates, the least-cost location was selected for each of the 10 categories of biomass. Because different biomasses may come from the same location when they are co-produced, there are only 5 ideal least-cost locations for these 10 categories of biomass. The least-cost locations are: forest logging wastes to Gua Musang( Kelantan), rice straw and rice husk to Yan (Kedah), rubberwood logging waste to Bentong (Pahang), EFB, PPF, OPF and OPT to Jempol (Negeri Sembilan) and plywood mill waste and sawdust to Kuala Lumpur (Federal Territory). The shapefiles for the 5 least cost locations and their respective concentric supply cost zones are provided (EPSG:4326 – WGS84 projection).

This study aims to make sheet organic mulch from several agricultural wastes and determine the best type of material for making sheet organic mulch. This research was carried out at the Greenhouse of the Faculty of Agriculture and the Laboratory of Agrotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Samudra University, Langsa City, Aceh Province which took place from February to April 2021.This study used a non-factorial completely randomized design (CRD) with four replications and used several agricultural waste materials consisting of bagasse, water hyacinth, rice straw, corn husks, banana fronds, coconut fiber and empty fruit bunches of oil palm. The raw materials used are agricultural waste 2.4 Kg and NaOH 0.168 Kg. The parameters observed in this study were water absorption, mulch moisture content and mulch yield.The results showed that the type of agricultural waste had a very significant effect on the sheet mulch produced. For water absorption parameters, raw material from bagasse (M1) is the best treatment. As for the water content parameter, the best treatment was found in Coconut Coir (M6) while the best treatment for the mulch yield parameter was found in Rice Straw (M3) agricultural waste.Based on the results of the study, to produce the best sheet mulch, it is recommended to use agricultural waste material from rice straw (M3).  

This literature review analyzes and synthesizes scientific studies published over the past six years on the use of various agro-industrial wastes for cultivating mushrooms of the genus Pleurotus (P. ostreatus, P. eryngii, P. pulmonarius, P. australis, and P. citrinopileatus). The review identifies the most productive combinations of substrates for growing different mushroom species. Particular attention is given to the chemical composition of substrates such as wheat and rice straw, corn stalks, pulp, husks, and oilcake used as nutrient media for mushrooms. Pleurotus ostreatus demonstrates high biological efficiency and yield, particularly when cultivated on wheat and rice straw, corn stalks, and by-products of the flour milling industry. Pleurotus eryngii achieves optimal growth on rice straw and sweet sorghum pulp, benefiting from their balanced cellulose and hemicellulose content. Pleurotus pulmonarius efficiently utilizes lignocellulosic materials such as corn husks and oilcake, exhibiting notable adaptability to various substrates. Pleurotus australis and Pleurotus citrinopileatus also show promising growth on different agro-industrial residues, though further studies are needed to optimize their cultivation parameters. Analysis of the chemical composition of the substrates showed that cellulose and hemicellulose content significantly affect fungi growth, while a high lignin content can complicate the decomposition process but is not an obstacle for species that can process it efficiently. A combination of different substrates can increase yields. Cultivating Pleurotus on lignocellulosic waste from the agro-food industry significantly changes the chemical composition of the waste, positively impacting the environment. The spent substrate contains a significant amount of lignocellulosic enzymes, which can be useful for further waste processing. Thus, using agro-industrial waste for mushroom cultivation is a promising area that contributes to sustainable resource use and agricultural development.

A two-year field experiment was conducted at Nyankpala, near Tamale during the 2014 cropping season and continued in 2015, to evaluate the effects of indigenous organic materials on soil chemical properties in the Guinea savannah zone of Ghana. The treatments included 4 organic materials (Biochar, Groundnut shells, Rice husk and Rice straw) applied at 3 rates (viz. 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5 t/ha on dry matter basis) and 3 fertilizer N rates using NPK (0,45-30-30, and 90-60-60 kg/ha) in 2014 and sulfan N (0,45 and 90 kg/ha) in 2015. The plots dimensions were 5m × 5m with maize planted at 40cm × 80cm to maturity stages in both years. The results after the second year revealed that the application rate of 2.5 t/ha groundnut shells without inorganic N supplement was superior in improving soil C, N, P and K but with addition of inorganic fertilizer the same soil nutrients increased most in biochar treated soils. Rice straw without fertilizer N improved the soil pH and Ca levels. The superior effects of groundnut shells and biochar were more pronounced at the application rate of 5 t/ha with or without sulfan N. Similarly, at 7.5 t/ha application of organic materials with or without fertilizer, groundnut shells and biochar enhanced the soil nutrients than the rice materials. The rice materials were found to affect more of soil pH and exchangeable Ca but for soil Mg, biochar appeared the most influential material. We conclude that, application of either groundnut shells or biochar could improve the soil nutrients of the savanna agroecology for crop production whilst with acidic soils and/or Ca deficient soils, rice materials are recommended for use.

Improper disposal of vegetable waste can cause serious environmental pollution, but because they contain huge water content and organic matter, they are not suitable for disposal by methods such as incineration and landfill. However, vegetable waste contains a large amount of nutrients and have some complementary effects with rice straw in terms of physical structure, nutrients, and moisture. In this experiment, the plant feed (corn husk, peanut shells and sorghum shells) was used as the control group (CON group), and the mixed silage of Chinese cabbage waste and rice straw (mixed silage) was used as the experiment group (TRE group), and its safety performance was evaluated by testing its toxin content, pesticide residues, vitamin contents and feeding experiment of Hu sheep. In the animal experiment, 16 healthy Hu sheep (5.5 months, 39.11 ± 4.16 kg) were randomly divided into two groups of 8 each. The results of the safety performance evaluation showed that the content of mycotoxins, heavy metals, and nitrites as well as pesticide residues in the crude feeds of both groups were within the range of Chinese feed hygiene standards. In addition, the levels of deoxynivalenol (DON) and aflatoxin (AFT) in the CON group were lower, while the content of ochratoxin (OTA) and zearalenone were higher than those in the TRE group (p < 0.05). The levels of plumbum(Pb), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), and nitrite in the CON group were lower than the mixed silage, while the levels of As were higher than the mixed silage (p < 0.05). It is worth noticing that the content of vitamin B2 (VB2) and vitamin C (VC) in the TRE group was higher than the CON group (p < 0.05). The results of the feeding experiment showed that the mixed silage did not affect the growth performance, nutrient digestibility, organ index, and intestinal index of Hu sheep (p > 0.05). In addition, the mixed silage reduced the weight of omasum, the proportion of omasum to live weight before slaughter, the amount of compound stomach, and the proportion of compound stomach to live weight before slaughter, which were higher than those in the TRE group (p < 0.05). The thickness of the basal layer of the rumen abdominal sac, the red blood cell count, the content of IL-10, and TNF-α in the blood, and TNF-α content in the rumen of the Hu sheep in the TRE group were higher than the CON group (p < 0.05). In conclusion, the feed safety index content of the mixed silage did not exceed the Chinese feed hygiene and safety standards and did not cause adverse effects on the growth performance of the Hu sheep, and it improved the immune performance of the body and digestive tract of the sheep to a certain extent and promoted the healthy development of the sheep.

The production of Ethanol has been utilized through the process of cellulose isolation from agricultural waste such as corn husk, rice straw and rice husk. Isolation of cellulose with pretreatment delignification using, NaOH 2% to produces cellulose of corn husk 16,6921 g (22,25%), rice straw 16,9021 g (22,53%) and rice husk 16,3691 g (21,85%) then analyzed the functional groups using FT-IR and SEM analysis. Cellulose as much as 2 g is hydrolyzed using HCl 30% and cellulase enzymes to obtain sugar that is qualitatively tested with Benedict and Tollens reagent and quantitatively tested with Luff Schoorl method and produces highest sugar content of rice husk 8,64% and 10,95%. The next stage sugar of hydrolysis will be fermented using yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) with 6 days, and then distilled at a temperature of 78-80oC. Ethanol was calculated by the potassium dichromate oxidation method to gave highest result from agricultral waste of ethanol chemical 5,97% and enzymatic 6,89% is rice husk.

Eight lignocellulosic by-products were evaluated as substrates for cultivation of the oyster mushroom, Pleurotus ostreatus ( Jacq. ex. fr) Kummer. The yields of mushroom on the different substrates were 183.1, 151.8, 111.5, 87.8, 49.5, 23.3, 13.0 and 0.0 g for composted sawdust of Triplochiton scleroxylon, rice straw, banana leaves, maize stover, corn husk, rice husk, fresh sawdust, and elephant grass, respectively. The biological efficiency (BE) followed the same pattern and ranged from 61.0% for composted sawdust to 0.0% for elephant grass. The yield of mushroom was positively correlated to cellulose ( r(2) =0.6), lignin ( r(2) =0.7) and fibre ( r(2) =0.7) contents of the substrates. Based on the yield and BE of the substrates tested, rice straw appeared to be the best alternate substrate for growing oyster mushrooms.