Deliberate and Affective Driven Decision-Making. A 10-Year Longitudinal Study of Decision-Making in Autism

Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human characteristics to nonhuman agents. This common tendency is thought to be driven by a heightened motivation for social connection and may therefore be expected to be reduced in autistic individuals given that this group has been claimed to demonstrate reduced social motivation in some settings. However, the subject of anthropomorphism in autism has not been studied extensively, and online forums, autobiographical accounts, and recent research on the topic suggest that, contrary to this expectation, anthropomorphism is commonly experienced by autistic individuals. We conducted semi-structured interviews with eight autistic and eight nonautistic adults, all who reported a tendency to anthropomorphize. We recorded, transcribed, and analyzed the interviews according to the thematic analysis framework with the objective of identifying similarities and differences in the lived experiences of anthropomorphism in autistic and nonautistic individuals. Individuals in both groups described anthropomorphism as comforting, promoting a sense of safety and friendship with, and feelings of empathy and sympathy toward, nonhuman agents. Autistic individuals stressed the important role anthropomorphized agents played in their life, particularly when growing up: easing loneliness and helping develop an understanding of emotions and relationships. Participants also expressed negative aspects of the phenomenon, with both autistic and nonautistic individuals worrying about anthropomorphized agents' feelings and well-being. For some individuals, such thoughts and feelings caused distress and were experienced as intrusive due to their involuntary nature. Autistic and nonautistic adults showed very similar anthropomorphic patterns. Although preliminary in nature, our findings highlight characteristics of anthropomorphic experiences for autistic and nonautistic individuals, furthering our understanding of individual differences in social cognition. By illustrating the important role nonhuman agents may play in the lives of autistic individuals, our findings may also guide future research and practice. Why was this study done?: 'Anthropomorphism' is when you feel that non-human items have human characteristics, for example if you experience plants, animals, or household objects as having thoughts or feelings. Anthropomorphism is experienced by many people in many different ways. Researchers think it might happen when people have a strong desire for social connection. This has led some to suggest that autistic people will be less likely to anthropomorphise due to difficulties in social understanding and motivation. However, researchers have not examined this directly, and our prior research, together with comments in online forums and autobiographical accounts, indicated that autistic individuals may experience a special relationship with non-human items.What was the purpose of this study?: The purpose of the study was to speak directly to people who anthropomorphise and hear about their experiences. We could then compare patterns of anthropomorphism between autistic and non-autistic adults.What did the researchers do?: We interviewed 16 adults (8 autistic and 8 non-autistic) who told us they anthropomorphised, and asked about their personal experiences of anthropomorphism.What were the results of the study?: Autistic and non-autistic adults described very similar experiences of anthropomorphism. People in both groups described anthropomorphism as comforting, and said that it gave them a sense of safety and friendship. They also cared for, and experienced feelings of empathy toward, anthropomorphised items. Individuals in both groups worried about anthropomorphised items' feelings and well-being and this caused some people considerable distress. Autistic individuals stressed the important role anthropomorphised items played in their life, particularly when growing up: reducing loneliness and helping them develop an understanding of emotions and relationships.What do these findings add to what was already known?: Our findings show that there are many similarities in the experiences of anthropomorphism in autistic and non-autistic adults. The findings also show how, for some autistic adults, anthropomorphism was helpful in developing relationships with other people.What are potential weaknesses in the study?: The small number of participants means that we do not know whether the findings would apply to all people who experience anthropomorphism.How will these findings help autistic adults now or in the future?: By showing the various ways in which autistic individuals attach social meanings (such as feelings of caring or friendship) to anthropomorphised items, our findings add to a growing number of studies which challenge the commonly-held assumption that autistic individuals are less motivated to make social connections. Our work shows that autistic individuals may be highly motivated to connect socially, and that meaningful social connections and expressions of empathy need not be limited to human beings.

Sensory processing requires selectivity to salient sensory input. Many autistic individuals report different sensory processing, which has been associated with altered sensory selectivity. The locus-coeruleus norepinephrine (LC-NE) system modulates the neuronal gain of sensory input, which represents a neurophysiological mechanism of sensory selectivity. In autistic individuals, we hypothesized that LC-NE tonic upregulation reduces sensory selectivity and underlies different sensory processing. Autistic (n = 139) and non-autistic (n = 98) individuals were assessed during a passive auditory oddball task with pupillometry and electroencephalography. For every trial, a baseline pupil size (BPS) assessed LC-NE tonic activity that coincides with current arousal, while a stimulus-evoked pupillary response (SEPR) assessed LC-NE phasic activity that estimated sensory selectivity. Electroencephalography assessed amplitudes of mismatch negativity (MMN-amp) that estimated pre-attentive change detection as a brain-activity readout of sensory selectivity. Measures were modeled between groups within the task by combining Frequentist and Bayesian approaches. Across groups, higher BPS was associated with more negative MMN-amp to standards and oddballs. A more negative MMN-amp to standards was associated with a higher SEPR to standards. Controlling for these associations, autistic versus non-autistic individuals showed a higher SEPR in response to standards. In addition, a positive association of BPS and SEPR to standards was specific to autistic individuals. With task progression, autistic versus non-autistic individuals showed a higher initial increase and subsequently steeper decrease of BPS. This was supported by Bayesian posterior distribution estimates. A short trial duration required concatenating trials to epochs and applying a linear-time invariant filter to capture the slow pupil changes. Without an LC-NE manipulation, we cannot rule out that pupil changes are evoked by other cortical pathways than the LC-NE. Across groups, LC-NE tonic upregulation is emphasized as a general mechanism that un-specifically increases pre-attentive change detection to all sensory stimuli, which then increases sensory selectivity to frequent stimuli. In autistic individuals, different sensory processing is characterized by increased sensory selectivity to frequent stimuli. This is likely caused by an LC-NE tonic upregulation. It associates autistic sensory processing with increased arousal upregulation that increases sensory selectivity to inconspicuous auditory information.

Purpose Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by deficits in social communication and interaction, restricted interests and repetitive behavior. Humor appreciation in autistic individuals has been examined from the perspective of incongruity-resolution theory but not fully examined in terms of benign violations. Therefore, this study aims to examine the benign violation theory of humor appreciation among autistic individuals. Design/methodology/approach In total, 38 and 462 autistic and non-autistic participants rated the degree of humor appreciation, violation appraisal and benign appraisal of 12 humorous stimuli. Furthermore, participants completed the Social Responsiveness Scale 2 Adult-Self Edition. Findings Restricted interests and repetitive behavior had significant positive effects on humor appreciation, violation appraisal and benign appraisal. Focusing on autistic traits, especially restricted interests and repetitive behavior, is important when considering humor appreciation in autistic individuals because differences in the degree of restricted interests and repetitive behavior are considered a gap in sharing humor. Originality/value This study focused on autistic traits such as deficits in social communication, restricted interests and repetitive behavior and examined their relationships with humor appreciation from the perspective of benign violation theory. The findings suggest that these three autistic traits are involved in the gap in sharing humor between autistic and non-autistic individuals. Therefore, identifying the association between autistic traits and humor appreciation offers a new perspective to support the formation of humorous relationships between autistic and non-autistic individuals.

SummaryBackgroundAutistic individuals might be more likely to misuse substances than non-autistic individuals. Better understanding of these patterns can help clinicians identify strategies to reduce substance use, protecting physical and mental health. The aim of this study was to compare the experiences of substance use between autistic and non-autistic adolescents and adults.MethodsThis study is a mixed-methods study, including both quantitative (closed-ended questions) and qualitative (one open-ended question) online assessments. Data were collected as part of a larger study, the Autism and Physical Health Survey, in which we administered an anonymised, online questionnaire to autistic and non-autistic individuals aged 16–90 years. In the present study, we investigated data on substance use or misuse, using two overlapping but separate samples from the survey (one sample with complete quantitative responses and one sample with complete qualitative responses). Binary measures of substance use were investigated using unadjusted and adjusted binomial logistic regression models. Content analysis was used to compare experiences of autistic and non-autistic adolescents and adults. We used Fisher's exact tests to assess differences in frequency of reporting particular qualitative themes and subthemes.FindingsSurvey recruitment was done between Feb 7, 2018, and Aug 26, 2019. At the end of the recruitment, 3657 individuals had accessed the survey. After excluding duplicates as well as participants with missing or incomplete responses, we had data from 2386 participants (1183 autistic and 1203 non-autistic participants; 1571 female and 815 male participants) for the quantitative analyses and data from 919 participants (429 autistic and 490 non-autistic participants; 569 female and 350 male participants) in the qualitative analyses. The samples for the quantitative and qualitative analyses were predominantly composed of female individuals, White individuals, UK residents, and those without intellectual disability. Autistic individuals were less likely than non-autistic individuals to report consuming alcohol regularly (16·0% of autistic individuals vs 22·2% of non-autistic individuals; adjusted model: odds ratio [OR] 0·69, 95% CI 0·55–0·86; p=0·0022) or binge-drinking (3·8% vs 8·2%; adjusted model: OR 0·38, 0·26–0·56; p<0·0001). Autistic male participants were less likely than non-autistic male participants to report ever having smoked (50·8% of autistic male participants vs 64·6% of non-autistic male participants; adjusted OR 0·50; 0·32–0·76; p=0·0022) or ever using drugs (35·4% vs 52·7%; adjusted OR 0·53; 0·35–0·80; p=0·0022). Regarding our qualitative analyses, among participants who reported a specific motivation for drug use, compared with non-autistic individuals, autistic individuals were nearly nine times more likely to report using recreational substances to manage behaviour (OR 8·89, 2·05–81·12; p=0·0017) and more likely to report using recreational substances to manage mental health symptoms (OR 3·08, 1·18–9·08; p=0·032). Autistic individuals were also more likely to report vulnerability associated with substance use (OR 4·16, 1·90–10·05; p=0·00027), including childhood use of drugs and being forced or tricked into using drugs.InterpretationAutistic individuals might be less likely than non-autistic individuals to report engaging in substance misuse. They also report using drugs to self-medicate. Clinicians should be aware of vulnerability linked to substance use among autistic patients and should work cooperatively with patients to effectively manage autistic and comorbid symptoms.FundingAutism Research Trust, Rosetrees Trust, Cambridge and Peterborough NHS Foundation Trust.

PurposeThere is a common mischaracterisation that autistic individuals have reduced or absent empathy. Measurement issues may have influenced existing findings on the relationships between autism and empathy, and the structure of the empathy construct in autism remains unclear.MethodsThe present study sought to address these gaps by examining the structure and psychometric properties of the Perth Empathy Scale (PES) in autistic individuals (N = 239) compared to non-autistic individuals (N = 690).ResultsOur moderated non-linear factor analysis revealed that the multidimensional empathy construct manifested similarly in autistic and non-autistic individuals, with the PES displaying good validity and reliability. Moreover, the results revealed that autistic individuals reported reduced cognitive empathy and reduced affective empathy for positive and negative emotions. However, there was greater heterogeneity of empathic tendencies in the autistic sample, indicating that these mean differences may not be generalisable for all autistic individuals.ConclusionThe present study highlights that the PES is suitable for assessing empathy across autistic and non-autistic individuals. This work with the PES also provides greater nuance to our understanding of empathy and autism, and based on these findings, we propose the empathy heterogeneity hypothesis of autism as a new way of describing empathy in autism.

Autistic individuals often experience difficulties in social settings. Although autistic individuals may not intuitively know the "typical" way to behave in social settings, many autistic individuals have a desire to fit in so they develop techniques to "camouflage" their autistic traits. Although camouflaging may help individuals to navigate social environments, camouflaging has also been shown to produce negative psychological outcomes. This study aims to explore whether this "camouflaging" strategy is associated with poor social competence, an aspect of the autism diagnosis. In this study, 247 nonautistic adults completed the Multidimensional Social Competence Scale (MSCS) to assess their social competence, and the Camouflaging Autistic Traits Questionnaire (CAT-Q) to assess the extent to which they used strategies to compensate or mask behaviors characteristic of autism in social settings. We found that over and above IQ, gender, and executive functioning scores, social competence (MSCS) scores reliably predicted the extent to which nonautistic individuals camouflaged, accounting for 25% of the variance in CAT-Q scores. Importantly, even when autistic traits were controlled for, social competence was still able to account for additional variance in CAT-Q scores. These results suggest that low social competency in nonautistic adults predicts camouflaging as a strategy in social situations. Given these camouflaging behaviors are being performed in an attempt to comply with an environmental demand to behave in a particular manner, these results also highlight the importance of conceptualizing the social challenges that autistic and nonautistic individuals face in a bidirectional manner, where the onus is not solely on the individual to comply with social conventions but also on society to accommodate diverse behavioral traits. Why was this study done?: Some autistic individuals try to hide their autistic traits to "fit in" with others, referred to as "camouflaging." Nonautistic adults also report camouflaging, but it is unclear whether this camouflaging is related to social difficulties that are not specific to autism. No research has been conducted to examine the relationship between social competence and camouflaging in nonautistic adults.What was the purpose of this study?: To further understand the factors that are related to camouflaging behaviors. More specifically, whether social abilities, and/or autism characteristics, are related to whether nonautistic adults camouflage.What did the researchers do?: We had 257 nonautistic adults complete various questionnaires, including ones that asked them about their camouflaging behaviors and social abilities. We examined the relationships between the scores from these questionnaires and the influence of other factors such as gender, intelligence, and executive functioning.What were the results of the study?: We found that both social abilities and autistic traits were related to camouflaging behaviors. Indeed, nonautistic adults who had poor social skills, and more autistic traits, engaged in more camouflaging. Social skills were associated with camouflaging even after we considered factors such as gender, intelligence, and executive functioning.What do these findings add to what was already known?: These findings help us understand camouflaging by demonstrating that it may be a common response to social difficulties in nonautistic, as well as autistic, adults. These results also indicate that camouflaging is related to low social competency, not just autism characteristics.What are the potential weaknesses in the study?: The participants in our study completed questionnaires through which they were required to pick from set answers, rather than describe their experiences. We may be missing important qualitative differences in the way nonautistic adults camouflage compared with autistic adults.How will these findings help autistic adults now or in the future?: By comparing what is shared and what is unique with nonautistic people who share traits with autistic people, a more precise definition and study of camouflaging behavior are possible. Rather than see camouflaging as a phenomenon that occurs exclusively in autistic people because of their disability, it may be that both autistic and nonautistic people use camouflaging when they perceive themselves to lack the necessary social competencies that are expected within their social contexts. Because both autistic traits and social competency are related to camouflaging behavior, we can begin to think about how to tease apart which characteristics are more likely to evoke camouflaging in autistic individuals and how this may be similar or different in nonautistic individuals. This knowledge will ultimately contribute to the development of more tailored approaches to prevent and/or reduce the negative impact of camouflaging behaviors for autistic adults.

Reasons for elevated suicide risks among autistic people are unclear, with insufficient population-based research on sex-specific patterns to inform tailored prevention and intervention. To examine sex-stratified rates of self-harm events and suicide death among autistic individuals compared with nonautistic individuals, as well as the associated sociodemographic and clinical risk factors. This population-based matched-cohort study using linked health administrative databases in Ontario, Canada included all individuals with physician-recorded autism diagnoses from April 1, 1988, to March 31, 2018, each matched on age and sex to 4 nonautistic individuals from the general population. Self-harm events resulting in emergency health care from April 1, 2005, to December 31, 2020, were examined for one cohort, and death by suicide and other causes from April 1, 1993, to December 31, 2018, were examined for another cohort. Statistical analyses were conducted between October 2021 and June 2023. Physician-recorded autism diagnoses from 1988 to 2018 from health administrative databases. Autistic and nonautistic individuals who were sex stratified a priori were compared using Andersen-Gill recurrent event models on self-harm events, and cause-specific competing risk models on death by suicide or other causes. Neighborhood-level income and rurality indices, and individual-level broad diagnostic categories of intellectual disabilities, mood and anxiety disorders, schizophrenia spectrum disorders, substance use disorders, and personality disorders were covariates. For self-harm events (cohort, 379 630 individuals; median age at maximum follow-up, 20 years [IQR, 15-28 years]; median age of first autism diagnosis claim for autistic individuals, 9 years [IQR, 4-15 years]; 19 800 autistic females, 56 126 autistic males 79 200 nonautistic females, and 224 504 nonautistic males), among both sexes, autism diagnoses had independent associations with self-harm events (females: relative rate, 1.83; 95% CI, 1.61-2.08; males: relative rate, 1.47; 95% CI, 1.28-1.69) after accounting for income, rurality, intellectual disabilities, and psychiatric diagnoses. For suicide death (cohort, 334 690 individuals; median age at maximum follow-up, 19 years [IQR, 14-27 years]; median age of first autism diagnosis claim for autistic individuals, 10 years [IQR, 5-16 years]; 17 982 autistic females, 48 956 autistic males, 71 928 nonautistic females, 195 824 nonautistic males), there was a significantly higher crude hazard ratio among autistic females (1.98; 95% CI, 1.11-3.56) and a nonsignificantly higher crude hazard ratio among autistic males (1.34; 95% CI, 0.99-1.82); the increased risks were associated with psychiatric diagnoses. This cohort study suggests that autistic individuals experienced increased risks of self-harm events and suicide death. Psychiatric diagnoses were significantly associated with the increased risks among both sexes, especially for suicide death, and in partially sex-unique ways. Autism-tailored and autism-informed clinical and social support to reduce suicide risks should consider multifactorial mechanisms, with a particular focus on the prevention and timely treatment of psychiatric illnesses.

Dominant theoretical models of autism and resultant research enquiries have long centered upon an assumed autism-specific empathy deficit. Associated empirical research has largely relied upon cognitive tests that lack ecological validity and associate empathic skill with heuristic-based judgments from limited snapshots of social information. This artificial separation of thought and feeling fails to replicate the complexity of real-world empathy, and places socially tentative individuals at a relative disadvantage. The present study aimed to qualitatively explore how serious literary fiction, through its ability to simulate real-world empathic response, could therefore enable more ecologically valid insights into the comparative empathic experiences of autistic and non-autistic individuals. Eight autistic and seven non-autistic participants read Of Mice and Men for six days while completing a semi-structured reflective diary. On finishing the book, participants were asked to engage in three creative writing tasks that encouraged reflective thinking across the novel. Thematic and literary analysis of the diary reflections and writing tasks revealed three main themes (1) Distance from the Novel; (2) Mobility of Response; (3) Re-Creating Literature. Findings demonstrated the usefulness of serious literature as a research tool for comparing the empathic experiences of autistic and non-autistic individuals. Specifically, autistic individuals often showed enhanced socio-empathic understandings of the literature with no empathy deficits when compared to non-autistic participants.

As a key auditory attribute of sounds, pitch is ubiquitous in our everyday listening experience involving language, music and environmental sounds. Given its critical role in auditory processing related to communication, numerous studies have investigated pitch processing in autism spectrum disorder. However, the findings have been mixed, reporting either enhanced, typical or impaired performance among autistic individuals. By investigating top-down comparisons of internal mental representations of pitch contours in speech and music, this study shows for the first time that, while autistic individuals exhibit diverse profiles of pitch processing compared to non-autistic individuals, their mental representations of pitch contours are typical across domains. These findings suggest that pitch-processing mechanisms are shared across domains in autism spectrum disorder and provide theoretical implications for using music to improve speech for those autistic individuals who have language problems.

Machine-learning models can assist in diagnosing autism but have biases. We examines the correlates of misclassifications and how training data affect model generalizability. The Social Responsive Scale data were collected from two cohorts in Taiwan: the clinical cohort comprised 1203 autistic participants and 1182 non-autistic comparisons, and the community cohort consisted of 35 autistic participants and 3297 non-autistic comparisons. Classification models were trained, and the misclassification cases were investigated regarding their associations with sex, age, intelligence quotient (IQ), symptoms from the child behavioral checklist (CBCL), and co-occurring psychiatric diagnosis. Models showed high within-cohort accuracy (clinical: sensitivity 0.91-0.95, specificity 0.93-0.94; community: sensitivity 0.91-1.00, specificity 0.89-0.96), but generalizability across cohorts was limited. When the community-trained model was applied to the clinical cohort, performance declined (sensitivity 0.65, specificity 0.95). In both models, non-autistic individuals misclassified as autistic showed elevated behavioral symptoms and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) prevalence. Conversely, autistic individuals who were misclassified tended to show fewer behavioral symptoms and, in the community model, higher IQ and aggressive behavior but less social and attention problems. Error patterns of machine-learning model and the impact of training data warrant careful consideration in future research.Lay AbstractMachine-learning is a type of computer model that can help identify patterns in data and make predictions. In autism research, these models may support earlier or more accurate identification of autistic individuals. But to be useful, they need to make reliable predictions across different groups of people. In this study, we explored when and why these models might make mistakes-and how the kind of data used to train them affects their accuracy. Training models means using information to teach the computer model how to tell the difference between autistic and non-autistic individuals. We used the information from the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS), which is a questionnaire that measures autistic features. We tested these models on two different groups: one from clinical settings and one from the general community. The models worked well when tested within the same type of group they were trained. However, a model trained on the community group did not perform as accurately when tested on the clinical group. Sometimes, the model got it wrong. For example, in the clinical group, some autistic individuals were mistakenly identified as non-autistic. These individuals tended to have fewer emotional or behavioral difficulties. In the community group, autistic individuals who were mistakenly identified as non-autistic had higher IQs and showed more aggressive behaviors but fewer attention or social problems. On the contrary, some non-autistic people were incorrectly identified as autistic. These people had more emotional or behavioral challenges and were more likely to have attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). These findings highlight that machine-learning models are sensitive to the type of data they are trained on. To build fair and accurate models for predicting autism, it is essential to consider where the training data come from and whether it represents the full diversity of individuals. Understanding these patterns of error can help improve future tools used in both research and clinical care.

Autistic fluid intelligence: Increased reliance on visual functional connectivity with diminished modulation of coupling by task difficulty.

Predictive processing accounts of autism posit that autistic individuals' perception is less biased by expectations than nonautistic individuals', perhaps through stronger precision-weighting of prediction errors. Since precision-weighting is fundamental to all information processing, under this theory, the differences between autistic and nonautistic individuals should be domain-general and observable in both behavior and brain responses. This study used EEG, behavioral responses, and eye-tracking co-registration during gaze-direction adaptation, to investigate whether increased precision-weighting of prediction errors is evident through smaller adaptation after-effects in autistic adolescents compared with nonautistic peers. Multilevel modeling showed that autistic and nonautistic adolescents' responses were consistent with behavioral adaptation, with Bayesian statistics providing extremely strong evidence for the absence of a group difference. Cluster-based permutation testing of ERP responses did not show the expected adaptation after-effect but did show habituation to repeated stimulus presentation, and no group difference was detected, a result not consistent with the theoretical account. Combined with the few other available studies, the current findings raise challenges for the theory, suggesting no fundamental difference in precision-weighting of prediction errors in autism.

Autism is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by persistent communication challenges, often compounded by social anxiety. Although differences in perspective-taking, cognitive flexibility, and social motivation have been implicated in these challenges, their influence on live interpersonal interactions remains unclear. In this study, we quantitatively examined how autistic and non-autistic individuals with varying levels of social anxiety adapted their communication during experimentally controlled interactions with two ostensibly distinct partners-a child and an adult-both portrayed by the same role-blind confederate. Autistic participants were equally motivated and capable as non-autistic participants in adjusting their communication to stereotypical assumptions about a partner's abilities, spontaneously using greater emphasis when addressing the presumed less capable child. However, they were less likely to modify these stereotype-driven behaviors in response to interaction-based evidence of partners' equal competence. While non-autistic participants dynamically adapted their communication to treat both partners equivalently, autistic participants maintained their stereotype-driven adjustments throughout the interaction. Preregistered analyses further linked non-autistic individuals' adaptive responses to early social exposure, a developmental factor not observed in autistic participants. Together, these findings highlight a core interactional capacity, shaped by early social experiences and operating on interaction-based evidence, as central to understanding communication challenges in autism.Lay abstractEveryday communication can be challenging for autistic individuals, particularly when social anxiety is involved. Research suggests that differences in understanding and adapting to others may contribute to these challenges, but it remains unclear whether and how these differences affect real-time interactions. This study invited autistic and non-autistic participants with varying levels of social anxiety to interact online with two "partners." One partner was introduced as a child and the other as an adult, although in reality the same actor played both roles without knowing which role he was assigned. All participants initially emphasized their communication more with the presumed child, whom they assumed was less capable. Over time, however, non-autistic participants adapted their approach, treating both partners equally as they gathered evidence that the child was just as competent as the adult. In contrast, autistic participants continued to treat the child as less capable throughout the interaction. Moreover, non-autistic participants who adapted more quickly tended to have experienced greater early social exposure in daycare, a relationship that was not observed in autistic participants. These findings suggest that while autistic individuals are willing and able to adjust their communication based on initial assumptions about others, they are less likely to revise these adjustments in response to evidence of a partner's actual understanding during interaction, a skill that appears to develop differently for them from an early age.

BackgroundAlterations in sensory perception, a core phenotype of autism, are attributed to imbalanced integration of sensory information and prior knowledge during perceptual statistical (Bayesian) inference. This hypothesis has gained momentum in recent years, partly because it can be implemented both at the computational level, as in Bayesian perception, and at the level of canonical neural microcircuitry, as in predictive coding. However, empirical investigations have yielded conflicting results with evidence remaining limited. Critically, previous studies did not assess the independent contributions of priors and sensory uncertainty to the inference.MethodWe addressed this gap by quantitatively assessing both the independent and interdependent contributions of priors and sensory uncertainty to perceptual decision-making in autistic and non-autistic individuals (N = 126) during an orientation categorization task.ResultsContrary to common views, autistic individuals integrated the two Bayesian components into their decision behavior, and did so indistinguishably from non-autistic individuals. Both groups adjusted their decision criteria in a suboptimal manner.LimitationsThis study focuses on explicit priors in a perceptual categorization task and high-functioning adults. Thus, although the findings provide strong evidence against a general and basic alteration in prior integration in autism, they cannot rule out more specific cases of reduced prior effect – such as due to implicit prior learning, particular level of decision making (e.g., social), and level of functioning of the autistic person.ConclusionsThese results reveal intact inference for autistic individuals during perceptual decision-making, challenging the notion that Bayesian computations are fundamentally altered in autism.

Difficulties regulating emotions have been coined as inherent to autism, possibly even presenting a core difficulty of autism. While several models of emotion regulation have been proposed in the past, in this targeted review article, we aim to map emotion regulation difficulties in autistic individuals within the framework of the extended process model of emotion regulation. This model can be considered the most comprehensive one currently incorporating not only different emotion regulation strategy groups but also different stages and processes involved in successful self-focused emotion regulation. Within this model, we will identify areas and domains as specifically impacted by autistic individuals. We will also outline gaps in the literature and provide suggestions for future research that can help deepen our understanding of the emotion regulation processes of autistic individuals. The ultimate goal is to develop specific support programs that address specific emotion regulation mechanisms, providing a much more individualized support approach.Lay abstractWhat do we already know about emotion regulation in autism?We know that many autistic children, youth, and adults experience difficulties regulating emotions. Existing research has focused mainly on the differences in emotion regulation capabilities between autistic and non-autistic individuals, the relationships between autistic traits and emotion regulation, and how emotion regulation relates to other outcomes, such as social skills and mental health.What does this paper add?We want to take a new approach to review the existing emotion regulation research through the lens of a specific theoretical model: the extended process model of emotion regulation. Professor James Gross developed this model. It consists of four emotion regulation phases: identification, selection, implementation, and monitoring.Our review revealed specific areas within these emotion regulation phases that could significantly impact the emotion regulation experiences of autistic individuals. We also outline the gaps in the research and propose avenues for future investigation.Implications for practiceBy deepening our understanding of emotion regulation in autistic individuals through the proposed future research, researchers and clinicians can pave the way for the development of tailored support programs. These programs will directly target specific emotion regulation mechanisms, offering a much-needed individualized support approach.