Debilitating Domestic Duties: Precariousness of Female Waste Pickers in Indonesia

The Aurá dump, located near Belém, Brazil, was one of the country’s largest dumpsites, providing a livelihood for over 1,800 informal waste pickers until its official closure in 2015, following Brazil’s National Solid Waste Policy. Despite its significant environmental and social contributions, the closure displaced the catadores (waste pickers), worsening their precarious living conditions. Protests erupted as waste pickers fought for inclusion in municipal waste management plans and demanded compensation for lost access to recyclable waste. While efforts to transition waste pickers into cooperatives were initiated, they failed to reach the majority of affected workers, leaving many to return to the hazardous Aurá site out of necessity. The dump’s closure also highlighted long-standing environmental issues, including water contamination and methane emissions, which continue to affect local communities. In 2019, amid a waste management crisis, authorities considered reopening Aurá for domestic waste disposal, sparking renewed debate. The struggle of Belém’s waste pickers underscores the broader challenges of environmental justice and social inclusion in Brazil’s waste management system, as both waste pickers and local communities face ongoing threats to their livelihood and health.

• Organization is crucial for waste pickers to become integrated in waste management. • Pro-poor policy and political will are prerequisites to co-produce waste management . • Waste picker organizations are able to address multiple SDGs and reduce poverty. • Community-based research confirms waste pickers’ roles in creating sustainable cities. Worldwide waste pickers work under deplorable conditions and are not recognized for their environmental and community services, by recovering and diverting recyclable materials from waste. Brazil has accumulated experiences of international relevance, particularly between 2004 and 2015, due to institutional and policy support for the Social and Solidarity Economy and the creation of a National Waste Pickers’ movement. These conditions have favored the formation of new recycling cooperatives throughout the country. While there is still a wide spectrum of differences among these membership-based organizations, they also have many characteristics in common and share similar values and objectives. This research aims to demonstrate that when organized and supported by public policies and inclusive governance these groups are able to tackle several of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This article presents results of a case study, conducted over the period of 5 months in 2018, involving 21 waste picker cooperatives in the metropolitan region of São Paulo, Brazil. Data collection included the application of a questionnaire to the leaders of the 21 cooperatives and site visits to their facilities, including informal conversations with members. Data was collected at the cooperatives and involved note taking and voice recording. The data was transcribed and tabled for the subsequent content analysis. The results demonstrate the impacts of the work of organized waste pickers on SDGs (goals # 1, 5, 8, 11 and 12). The study shows how these groups address social, economic and environmental targets, how they build resilience and reduce vulnerabilities. Many cooperatives still operate under precarious conditions, suffering from weak government commitments and neglect or from the volatility of the economy. Public policies and participation in governance are instrumental in acknowledging waste picker organizations and remunerating their services to thus unlock their full potential to further the progress on the implementation of SDGs. Political will is paramount for waste pickers to become the champions in the transition to more sustainable development.

Waste pickers are ubiquitous in major cities and involved in sorting, reusing, recycling, and sales of recyclables. Waste picking serves as a source of livelihood and helps where the formal sector is encumbered with municipal waste management. This study focuses on waste picking and pickers’ views on the effects of households’ separation of solid wastes on their jobs. An intercept survey was conducted amongst 65 waste pickers in Ibadan metropolis. Data were analysed via descriptive and inferential statistics. Most waste pickers were males (92.3%) and single (53.8%) and 61.5% faced repression from law enforcement agents. Although aware of the benefits of source separating solid waste, 61.5% of respondents were not in support of the government making it mandatory, fearing that their income would suffer. The study recommends integrating waste pickers into the city’s waste management plan. This would improve the livelihood of waste pickers and ensure a sustainable and clean environment.

This article presents the informal recycling sector's (IRS) social, economic driving factors in five cities in Indonesia and their contribution to waste management in the cities. An on-field analysis was conducted by random and incidental sampling method of questionnaire administration followed by observation. Among the respondents (n = 178), 79% of individuals were waste pickers, 15% were small-scale waste collectors, and 6% were medium-scale waste collectors. The majority of the waste pickers sampled are male (79%). The amount of waste collected by individual waste pickers is 43.87 kg person-1 day-1, a corresponding recycling rate of approximately 12%, and an average monthly income of US$91.7. Gender differences are apparent as the male waste pickers generated higher incomes than those earned by their female counterparts (US$128.3 for men and US$69.7 for women) even as their average work hours are similar to that of the men (7.8 and 7.6 hours day-1, respectively). Economic motives are the respondents' primary driving factors as moving to large cities accompanied by their family members. The study concluded that the IRS plays substantial contribution to waste management; further integrating them into the waste management system via IRS association, additional investment, formulation of law and policies and efforts by municipalities can give various benefits for involved stakeholders, the community and the environment. The results can serve as a significant reference for improving the solid waste recycling system and informal sector management in Indonesian cities and other developing countries.

In South Africa, waste pickers play a significant role in the management of waste at landfill sites. Waste picking is an income-generating venture for most people with low-income base. The activity of sorting waste at landfill sites is, however, associated with occupational health risks to waste pickers which this study has examined. The study adopted a cross-sectional survey with a convenience sampling method which was conducted among 114 waste pickers in three landfill sites in Limpopo Province of South Africa. A validated questionnaire was used in eliciting responses from the participants. The statistical technique employed includes the ANOVA, simple, and multiple regression. The results indicated that, in the last one year, waste pickers exposed to landfill sites were 1.7 times more likely to develop a common health disorder (AOR: 1.733; 95% CI: 1.069, 2.755; P value: 0.041). There was statistical significance between the number of days worked at the landfill and the health conditions of the waste pickers (P ≤ 0.001). The cofounders were adjusted for age and years worked, and the result revealed that days worked by the waste pickers' increased their chances of occupational health risks by 1.4 times. It is unlikely that waste pickers will have a risk-free environment, but supportive policies such as provision of adequate personal protective equipment and more awareness programmes on the health risks related to such enterprises will aid in abating the associated risks.

New regulations incorporate EU standards on recycling and create a structured waste management framework following Turkey’s EU integration process. As a result, the volume of recovered plastic, metal, and paper increased significantly. However, approximately 500,000 waste pickers in Turkey, including 15,000 in Ankara, have been excluded from these developments. Many now face unemployment or declining income, especially with increased imports of plastic waste from the United Kingdom. Waste pickers in Ankara work long hours under poor conditions and are often stigmatised. The conflict escalated in 2006 when a waste picker was killed by municipal police. Since then, waste pickers have clashed with authorities over their right to work. Organised groups, such as the Street Waste Collectors Association, have emerged, advocating for legal recognition and better working conditions. They have gained support from international organisations, such as the International Labour Organisation, which has organised workshops to promote the inclusion of waste pickers in formal waste management systems. Waste pickers collect far more waste than municipal teams, yet firms cannot legally buy from them. Ankara’s waste pickers continue to push for self-employment status, personal insurance, and legal recognition, hoping for reform that ensures their inclusion in Turkey’s formal waste management framework.

Worldwide, waste pickers are exposed to adverse health effects resulting from hazards at work. This study aimed to identify possible gender disparities among waste pickers. A quantitative cross-sectional epidemiological study, using semi-structured data was conducted in Estrutural’s dumpsite, Brasília, Brazil. It included 1,025 waste pickers, with 67% being female. Most of them lived without partners (73.7%), have 3 to 4 children (47.8%), and have a lower monthly income (62.6%<USD 125) when compared to men (p < 0,001). Women also suffered from worse health outcomes than men: hypertension- 26.3%; 16.2% (p < 0.001), bronchitis- 16.4%; 9.7% (p 0,003), diarrhea- 28.3; 17.0 and worms- 16.0; 5.5% (p < 0,001), respectively. This study highlighted the existence of gender differences among waste pickers, which suggests a greater vulnerability of the female population who need policies, programs and awareness of society to ensure safe working and living conditions both for them and their children.

The execution of Urban Solid Waste Management involves a complex process. Due to the fact that solid waste management is inherent to the municipality, each municipality establishes links with waste picker organizations in a different way. This paper analyzes, from the point of view of the ASCARC waste pickers, the limits and possibilities of the Cáceres Recicla Program, Municipal Law nº 2.367/2013, in relation to the socio-productive inclusion of recyclable material waste pickers. Waste pickers are important environmental agents and their perception of the processes that involve them contributes to the improvement of solid waste management, enabling solidary, more inclusive and efficient selective collection. Regarding the municipality of Cáceres-MT, it was observed that although ASCARC was the only organization qualified at the time of Public Call nº 001/2021, the associated waste pickers still lack training in relation to practices inherent to associated work, technical training and Environmental Education that allow the development of skills that lead them to critically analyze their important role within the municipality. These notes reflect directly on the importance of articulation between the municipal public management, educational institutions and organizations of waste pickers, in the sense that they are provided with adequate support for the execution of the selective collection service, as well as that they be able to provide information on the execution of the activity that provide subsidy for the elaboration of public policies, as well as their execution.

Waste management and recycling need to be more inclusive, integrating informal agents such as Waste Pickers. In many Global South countries, Waste Pickers’ Organisations (WPOs) have their work recognised at country levels. Despite Brazilian policies’ achievements, WPOs have faced many challenges, one being their financial sustainability. This paper presents a financial diagnosis and analysis of the solidary and inclusive selective collection in a Brazilian city that supports a WPO since 2010. The SoCo Tool allows to quantify and understand the impacts and benefits of selective collection. Results show an operational cost of US$ 47.00/tonne performed by the WPO or US$ 20.632,80 (2016), meaning a 37% cost reduction for the local authority. ACLAMA is a small, but efficient WPO, with a high average productivity per worker and a low rejects rate compared to other case studies. Concerning occupational health, results showed that these aspects could be improved, as well as social benefits for the workers of ACLAMA. We raise the discussion that surviving on materials’ sales are not enough and a greater financial participation from the municipality and producers in the form of payment for urban cleaning services could help to bear costs for these social benefits and other operational improvements, such as more investments in sorting machinery and equipment. Municipal waste management with the inclusion of organisations of waste pickers presents a real possibility for achieving productive cooperated organisation, income generation for several families, environmental gains to reach a more humane and sustainable society.

Dhaka, Bangladesh, faces a growing waste crisis, producing about 5,000 tonnes of waste per day, much of which is managed by informal waste pickers, or tokais. These waste pickers, predominantly women and children, recycle 15% of the city’s waste, including metals, plastic, and paper. Their contributions are vital for reducing the waste burden but go largely unrecognised by formal systems. With no formal inclusion in municipal waste management, they work under precarious and hazardous conditions, often exposed to toxic waste and infectious diseases. Recent developments, such as waste-to-energy projects and landfill expansions, threaten their access to recyclables and hence their livelihood. Efforts by NGOs, such as Grambangla, have sought to empower waste pickers through education, safety initiatives, and attempts to organise them into a union, but challenges persist. Without formal recognition, waste pickers remain excluded from welfare programmes, face exploitation, and suffer from poor health and limited opportunities. Dhaka’s waste management system continues to struggle with sustainability, lacking long-term planning, while informal recyclers face increasing marginalisation amid the city’s modernisation efforts.

This chapter highlights the struggles of waste pickers in Cape Coast, Ghana, who operate in precarious conditions without formal recognition or protection. Waste pickers collect recyclables from households and open dumpsites, but their activities are considered illegal by local authorities. Despite providing an essential environmental service, waste pickers face harassment and removal by government workers, with no plans in place to provide protective equipment or legalise their work. Waste management companies, such as Zoomlion, extract recyclables for profit, creating further conflicts with waste pickers. The Green Africa Youth Organization (GAYO) has raised awareness about the dangerous conditions at Cape Coast’s dumpsite, where waste pickers are exposed to hazardous materials and unsafe working conditions. Many waste pickers, particularly women and young people, rely on this work for survival due to high unemployment and lack of opportunities. While organisations such as WIEGO have begun advocating for informal workers in other regions of Ghana, Cape Coast’s waste pickers remain largely unorganised and vulnerable. Readers will gain insight into how a lack of government support and repressive treatment exacerbate the challenges faced by informal waste pickers, as well as the ongoing struggle for recognition and safer working conditions.

Kpone landfill, located in the Tema area of Greater Accra, receives 700 tonnes of waste daily and serves as one of Accra’s primary waste sites. Informal waste pickers, who recover recyclable materials, face health hazards and work in precarious conditions without recognition. Kpone landfill, funded by the World Bank, replaced an uncontrolled dumpsite but quickly reached its capacity due to overwhelming waste volumes. Despite its engineered status, it fails to comply with environmental standards, leading to fires and significant pollution. About 300 waste pickers work at Kpone, recovering 60% of recyclable materials. They face social stigma, lack health care, and earn low incomes. The informal sector remains unregulated, and many waste pickers work without legal recognition. In 2018, they formed the Kpone Landfill Waste Pickers Association to improve conditions and fight for inclusion in municipal waste management systems. Supported by WIEGO and international partners, they demand recognition, protective equipment, and access to health services. The landfill’s poor conditions have prompted community protests, with local youth and businesses calling for its closure due to health risks. The government plans to divert waste and construct new waste transfer stations, but waste pickers are excluded from formal plans.

Waste management is a major problem especially in the Global South. Examining the role of waste pickers in Tanga City, Tanzania, this study focuses on how these individuals affect livelihood, landfill sustainability, and environmental sanitation. Convenience sampling was deployed to obtain 20 landfill waste scavengers, and 15 street waste pickers; while a purposive sampling technique was used to select 4 key informants. Data was gathered through field observation, in-depth interviews, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions. The findings reveal that informal waste pickers are essential to recycling initiatives, landfill sustainability, and environmental sanitation because they help divert waste from landfills, lower greenhouse gas emissions, and minimize soil and water contamination. However, the dominance of formal waste collectors restricts the access by informal waste pickers to valuable recyclables, thereby limiting their contributions. Further, waste pickers confront a number of issues, such as economic vulnerability, dangerous working conditions, and social stigma. Notably, waste picking is a survival tactic used by marginalized urban populations in Tanga City. The study underscores the necessity of formal acknowledgement and policy integration of the waste pickers. The study further suggests that local governments should incorporate waste pickers into formal waste management systems through financial assistance, organizing waste picker unions, and legal recognition to increase their contribution and improve their standard of living. Additionally, capacity-building initiatives centred on recycling, composting, waste sorting, and biogas generation should be provided by the government.

China’s Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Management Initiatives and the 2020 ban on waste imports represent a strategic shift in urban waste management, aiming to modernise systems while reducing environmental degradation. However, these reforms, which focus on formal actors, such as sanitation systems and residents, have marginalised the country’s large informal sector of waste pickers, many of whom are rural migrants. These waste pickers play a crucial role in the recycling chain by collecting and sorting recyclable materials, but government policies fail to recognise their contribution, leaving them vulnerable to economic instability. Despite their vital role, waste pickers face precarious working conditions, lack of social security, and increasingly limited access to waste. The evolving policies not only threaten their livelihood but also disrupt the social networks and community ties waste pickers have built in cities. To ensure sustainability and inclusivity, future MSW initiatives must integrate waste pickers, leveraging their expertise to enhance urban waste processing. This would improve both waste management efficiency and the socioeconomic conditions of these essential, yet overlooked, workers.

Bogotá’s Association of Waste Pickers (ARB) secured a historic legal victory in 2013, gaining recognition and compensation for their role in the city’s waste management. However, recent policy changes threaten this hard-won inclusion. The private company, Bogotá Limpia, implemented new waste management strategies in 2018, including the installation of 10,000 garbage containers without consulting waste pickers or educating the public about their use. This exclusion undermines the established recycling system, leaving streets saturated with waste and side-lining informal recyclers. Despite clear legal protections, Bogotá’s waste pickers face challenges to their livelihood as the city’s new policies overlook their contributions. Waste pickers are not opposed to infrastructure improvements but demand inclusion in the city’s waste management strategy. They argue that collaboration could prevent the deterioration of both waste management services and their incomes. As Bogotá’s authorities continue to push forward with unilaterally designed policies, waste pickers remain resilient in their fight for recognition and sustainable inclusion in the evolving waste management system. Their struggle highlights the critical need for participatory policy making that respects their rights while addressing the city’s environmental goals.