De lege ferenda for improvement of the Korean legal system for maritime autonomous surface ships (MASS)

Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) have emerged with the advancements in information and communication technology (ICT), artificial intelligence (AI), and automation technology. MASS offers several advantages, such as reducing maritime accidents, increasing operational efficiency, lowering labour costs, and minimizing human errors. However, there are numerous challenges to address for the practical operation of MASS. In particular, the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREG), which governs the navigation rules for vessels, is a crucial international convention for the safety of navigation of MASS at sea. Therefore, this study examines the amendments to COLREG considering the characteristics of MASS. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has defined various degrees of autonomy for MASS, ranging from full autonomy to remote control, and through the Regulatory Scoping Exercise (RSE), it has identified the need to amend certain provisions of COLREG to ensure the safe operation of MASS. Accordingly, this paper analyzes the results of the RSE conducted by IMO and proposes measures for improving COLREG to ensure the safe navigation of MASS.

Collision-avoidance navigation systems for Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships: A state of the art survey

Maritime autonomous surface ships (MASS) are on the horizon and with them many opportunities, but also challenges. In an attempt to clarify the potential implications for flag states of the concept of MASS controlled from a remote operations center (ROC), this article discusses the law of the sea requirements of “genuine link,” “effective jurisdiction and control,” and “in the charge of a master and officers,” all in light of recent discussions at the International Maritime Organization (IMO). The article concludes that the law of the sea does not prohibit some or all aspects of the functions of MASS to be operated, performed, and/or controlled from a ROC, the location of which is remote from MASS and may also be outside the territory of the flag state. To enable effective jurisdiction and control over persons responsible and liable for breach of safety or environmental regulations, the flag state will largely be able to follow the International Safety Management (ISM) Code model. However, in certain instances, such as in cases concerning penal and disciplinary proceedings, the flag state will need a special agreement with the state where a ROC is located, which is what distinguishes MASS from conventional shipping. If the flag state is unable to demonstrate effective jurisdiction and control over a vessel controlled from a ROC located in another country, and the genuine link cannot be demonstrated by any other means, the flag state could run a risk of being deprived of the right to exercise diplomatic protection over its MASS.

At present, with the development of waterborne transport vehicles, research on ship faces a new round of challenges in terms of intelligence and autonomy. The concept of maritime autonomous surface ships (MASS) has been put forward by the International Maritime Organization in 2017, in which MASS become the new focus of the waterborne transportation industry. This paper elaborates on the state-of-the-art research on motion control of MASS. Firstly, the characteristics and current research status of unmanned surface vessels in MASS and conventional ships are summarized, and the system composition of MASS is analyzed. In order to better realize the self-adaptability of the MASS motion control, the theory and algorithm of ship motion control-related systems are emphatically analyzed under the condition of classifying ship motion control. Especially, the application of intelligent algorithms in the ship control field is summarized and analyzed. Finally, this paper summarizes the challenges faced by MASS in the model establishment, motion control algorithms, and real ship experiments, and proposes the composition of MASS motion control system based on variable autonomous control strategy. Future researches on the accuracy and diversity of developments and applications to MASS motion control are suggested.

Due to the remarkable development of technologies such as big data and artificial intelligence, Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) are becoming a reality, and the development of technology for remotely operating a ship is being actively carried out in maritime industry. In order to introduce such MASS, the necessary amendment and clarification of the international maritime conventions can be made through the Regulatory Scoping Exercise (RSE), thereby contributing to the creation of conditions for the smooth operation of MASS in the future. In this paper, the research was conducted on 11 instruments under the purview of the Legal Committee (LEG Conventions). First, question on whether the relevant provisions of each convention could be applied without any problem to the MASS operations, or whether any amendment or clarification were necessary was reviewed. As a result, it was identified that no additional work was required, or that, in some cases, the operations of MASS were possible through unified interpretation and amendment of the conventions. The main issues derived from the LEG Conventions can be summarized into definitions and terminology, the role and responsibility of the master, the role and responsibility of the remote operator, legal responsibility, certificates, and other matters. In Degree 1 and Degree 2, since seafarers are on board, it is likely that most of them can be applied to MASS through the development of a unified interpretation. In Degree 3 and Degree 4, in which no seafarers are on board, it is necessary to amend the current conventions or to enact a new instrument on MASS. However, it is necessary to clarify the role and responsibility for newly emerging remote operator or manufacturers of autonomous systems and remote systems. In addition, it seems that definitions of terminology such as MASS and autonomous level are commonly needed and it is necessary to review the clear concept and role of the master, etc. In general, the master is a person responsible for operation of the ship on behalf of the shipowner, and the role can be much important. However, it is necessary to clarify the role and responsibility of these traditional masters, since the master does not board the ship in Degrees 2, 3, and 4. It is necessary to clarify the role and responsibility of new remote operator as well. Through the RSE of the LEG Conventions, the remote operator-related provisions have been identified to a large extent, and it is necessary to clarify the definition, concept, role and responsibility of the remote operator. In addition, as new remote operation systems are introduced, that is, autonomous systems and remote control systems of MASS, it is necessary to clarify whether or not responsibility for manufacturers and system developers is required. In addition, an additional unified interpretation or amendment may be necessary for how to handle the insurance certificate that must be kept on board for the port state control inspection to MASS that does not have seafarers on board.

Maritime autonomous surface ships (MASS) have received significant attention recently both by academia and industry to the point that the International Maritime Organization (IMO) started a regulatory scoping exercise. So far, most of the discussions have been solely focused on technical developments, thus overlooking the complex array of socio-economic and policy factors. This paper aims to fill this gap by comprehensively analyzing MASS development. We develop and apply a novel model of technology adoption (TechAdo) to holistically assess MASS as an innovation. By triangulating data from elite interviews, with work at the IMO and a systematic literature search, we show that MASS is in development but still in its infancy. Our analyses show that factors in the enabling environment (social acceptance, regulation, and governance), along with human capital, have been overlooked and need to be carefully considered by future research and policy.

Assessing Innovation in Transport: An Application of the Technology Adoption (TechAdo) Model to Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS)

This article examines the intersection between maritime decarbonization and the rise of Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS). International shipping contributes nearly three percent of global greenhouse gas emissions, making technological innovation essential to meet the International Maritime Organization (IMO)’s 2023 Greenhouse Gas Strategy and net-zero ambitions. MASS, powered by artificial intelligence, offer opportunities for fuel optimization, emissions reduction, and digital efficiency. Yet, their deployment exposes profound legal gaps. Existing conventions—such as the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), the Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGS), the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW), and the Convention on Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims (LLMC)) 1976 (Convention on Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims (LLMC) 1976)—were drafted for crewed vessels, leaving unresolved questions about safety oversight, cybersecurity resilience, and liability allocation among shipowners, artificial intelligence developers, and Remote Control Centers. Through case studies such as the Wakashio and comparative insights from oil pollution, nuclear liability, and aviation law, the article demonstrates how fragmented liability regimes risk either under-compensating victims or over-deterring innovation. It argues for proactive reform: extending limitation rights conditionally to new stakeholders, redefining recklessness standards, mandating insurance, and potentially establishing international compensation funds. The study concludes that only by recalibrating legal frameworks can MASS become a catalyst for a greener, safer, and more equitable maritime future.

As Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) move toward commercialization, ensuring operational safety under degraded states has emerged as a critical challenge. This study conducts a risk analysis to identify hidden hazards that may occur when MASS operate in degraded states—conditions where the ship stays within the operational environment (OE) but outside its operational design domain (ODD). The analysis applies the System-Theoretic Process Analysis (STPA) methodology, focusing on the interactions among MASS, Remote Operations Centers (ROC), and Remote Operators (ROs) as defined in the MASS code being enacted by the International Maritime Organization (IMO). STPA modeling reveals that loss of situational awareness, information asymmetry, delayed commands, and failures in inter-system coordination are primary risk factors during degraded conditions. Based on the analysis, the study identifies control actions and safety constraints to address these hazards and proposes practical safety guidelines. These findings contribute to the development of risk-based operational modes and standards to support the safe navigation of MASS, even in degraded states.

Demonstrations and local tests of several maritime autonomous surface ships (MASS) have recently been carried out. From a technological standpoint, MASS are becoming able to handle actual operations in certain sea areas. Since 2017, the MSC (Maritime Safety Committee) of the IMO (International Maritime Organization) has been discussing legal problems with the Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGs) with regard to MASS operation. The purpose of this paper is to clarify the rules from the perspective of seafarers, who need to interpret COLREGs when dealing with MASS in ship handling situations on the sea, and also to discuss possible required amendments to COLREGs. This paper attempts to clarify the extent of current interpretations while also taking into account the answers to questionnaires received from 130 pilots, ship captains and navigation officers concerning COLREGs for MASS operation. Given the four common principles of COLREGs, it is considered whether the principles need to be changed with the introduction of MASS from the viewpoint of seafarers.

The paper presents the influence of the human factor on the safety of autonomous shipping with respect to interaction between management personnel involved in autonomous ship operation - Ship Master and ROC (Remote Operation Centre) operator. Against the background of the works conducted by International Maritime Organization (IMO)and the European Union, the influence of the human factor was analysed depending on the MASS (Maritime Autonomous Surface Ship) level of autonomy defined by IMO. A Bayesian-based model was proposed to assess the reliability of the Ship Master, ROC operator and their influence on the operational reliability of sea voyage of MASS with level 2 of autonomy. The mutual high reliability of both the Ship Master and ROC operator allows for significant improvement of sea voyage reliability. The prospect theory was introduced in the analysis of decisions making process in risky conditions of ROC operator, remotely controlling MASS with level 3 of autonomy, without a crew on board. The influence of the operator’s prospect and emotions can be described using decision weight functions. In both studied cases, decision support and cooperation is very important and the estimated influence of the human factor is lower than for a ship with level 1 of autonomy operated by Ship Master without ROC support.

International shipping is on the eve of a new era where remotely controlled and partially or fully automated and unmanned Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) will be carrying international trade. The regulation of navigation and shipping in the contemporary international law of the sea and international maritime law are premised on human presence and control on-board ships. Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 1982 and several maritime conventions will need to be revisited to determine how MASS may be accommodated and, where not possible, what further legal development may be needed. Recently, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) decided to address the expected regulatory impacts of these ships and to prepare an agenda for their proactive regulation. This article explores regulatory impacts that would need to be considered and argues that MASS have the potential to provide new directions for international law and the IMO.

The current maritime industry is expected to have a significant impact on the role of maritime-related technologies and systems, especially seafarers, in the rapidly changing Fourth Industrial Revolution. The Maritime Autonomous Surface Ship (MASS) aims to reduce the number of safety accidents and improve seafarers’ working environment. With regard to MASS, the International Maritime Organization has been trying to minimize unexpected impact in the maritime education and training sector by establishing international conventions such as the Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers. However, domestic designated educational institutions have not yet established an education and training scheme to develop seafarers who will be on board for MASS. Therefore, this paper reviews the technology of MASS, analyzes the changes in education and training in order to upgrade the qualifications, and suggests the competencies of smart seafarers equipped with the integrated management ability required for Artificial Intelligence, Big Data, Cybersecurity, and the Digital System Revolution through education and training. In addition, this study provides basic information for the education and training of seafarers who are optimized for the rapidly changing technological environment.

Discussions surrounding Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) are occurring in academia, industry, and the International Maritime Organization (IMO). Automatic collision avoidance, as one of the key technologies of MASS, is the core of the autonomous navigation function of MASS, and its role is to solve the autonomous collision avoidance problem during MASS navigation. Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGS) is a fundamental basis for automatic collision avoidance, and the navigation of MASS should adhere to it. However, the applicability of MASS to COLREGS has not yet been resolved. Responding to these issues, the paper proceeds to analyze the principal challenges of MASS to COLREGS in terms of the application of MASS to good seamanship, the neglect provision, the lookout provision, the insight of one another provision, and the problems of the deviation provision. Furthermore, suggestions are put forth for the revision of COLREGS, including the mode of revision, the reconstruction of MASS collision liability, the long-term coexistence of MASS and traditional ships, and the risk control of COLREGS revision in the context of artificial intelligence. These suggestions aim to establish a foundation for a more effective adaptation to the advent of the MASS era.

Autonomous ships, also known as maritime autonomous surface ships (MASS), are vessels that use artificial intelligence and robotics technologies to navigate independently. Due to their advanced technological capabilities, MASS is expected to play a significant role in the future of the shipping industry. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is currently developing international standards for MASS classification, including accident avoidance technologies. However, the issue of how to mitigate the consequences of accidents involving autonomous ships has not been sufficiently addressed. Therefore, this study focuses on alternative design solutions and emergency response systems for MASS to properly control emergency situations and minimize the impact of accidents, such as flooding and fire on board. The goal is to efficiently address such accidents, especially in situations where the number of people on board is significantly reduced or the ship is being operated automatically or remotely, and to promptly detect and respond to such situations from a remote location. This paper investigates the possibility of modifying the design of the air conditioning system to delay flooding by considering a reduction in the number of crew members in order to prevent flooding. To prevent the spread of fire, the study examines early blockage measures for areas where air can enter. Flood and fire response systems were configured to be executed manually or automatically based on the results of presimulated scenarios defined in thousands of accident scenarios. Each accident propagation and response situation proposes an alternative using a coded shortcut key utilizing graphic symbols of international standard ISO 23120.