‘Dark complexion preferred’

Historically, rehabilitation clinicians who work with people who are visually impaired (that is, are blind or have low vision) have relied on subjective checklists and clinical assessments to document the capacity of individuals to perform various tasks, including mobility, and to assess the impact of rehabilitation. Numerous instruments have been developed to measure functional outcomes and the quality of life of people who are visually impaired (De l'Aune, Williams, Watson, Schuckers, & Ventimiglia, 2004; Haymes, Johnston, & Heyes, 2001). The continued development and implementation of such instruments represents a major achievement in the coordination and standardization of measurements of functional outcomes. This article highlights a unique, objective method for assessing the mobility of clients who are visually impaired by using a combination of GPS (Global Positioning System), GIS (Geographic Information Systems), and accelerometer technologies. The use of these technologies facilitates a highly objective and reliable measurement of both indoor (accelerometer) and outdoor (GPS and accelerometer) mobility and travel patterns. Moreover, measures of mobility can be used in conjunction with other commonly used self-report and clinician-assessed measures of mobility-related behaviors, including those that assess the impact of vision loss on mobility. GPS AND GIS TECHNOLOGY GPS technology, which provides information on the spatial coordinates of a given geographic location or traveler that is derived from signals received simultaneously from multiple GPS satellites, is often used in conjunction with GIS, which provides digital mapping and other important information about a specific location. In simple terms, GPS determines an individual's geographic location, travel paths, and speeds, while GIS provides a multilayered platform that is typically displayed in maps that can be used to interpret GPS data. GPS technology has been used to investigate details about personal travel behavior (Wolf, Guensler, & Bachman, 2001; Wolf, Loechl, Thompson, & Arce, 2003) and the relationships between physical activity and travel patterns. By equipping participants who are visually impaired with GPS data loggers, investigators can process data on second-by-second GPS positions, time, and speed within a GIS framework to obtain in-depth information about various outdoor behaviors, including travel times, modes of travel, the duration of stops, the length of trips, speed profiles, routes, and types of travel environments. This information can then be augmented with information on the specific purposes of travel and levels of independence that is gathered from self-report travel diaries and assessment interviews. These behaviors are closely related to the goals associated with orientation and mobility. GIS technology involves spatial analysis software platforms that are used to manage and evaluate geographically referenced data (Brainard, Bateman, & Lovett, 1995; Brainard, Lovett, & Parfitt, 1996; Lee & Stucky, 1998; Loh, Van Stipdonk, Holtfrerich, & Hsieh, 1996; Lovett, Parfitt, & Brainard, 1997). It can be used to generate detailed information on travel routes that an individual who is visually impaired has collected via GPS. In addition, extensive comments or notes about specific features of various GIS themes, such as bus routes, commercial and entertainment districts, and other relevant community information, can be integrated into the data system. METHODS This study was conducted by researchers at the Atlanta VA Rehabilitation Research and Development Center and at GeoStats () to evaluate the efficiency of the procedures, the quality of the data, and the effectiveness of the concepts of the three technologies. It was approved by the Emory University Internal Review Board, and the participants signed informed-consent forms before they participated. …

Upon first arriving in the Congo, Marlow, the narrator of Conrad’s Heart of Darkness, discovers that the steamship meant to be his mode of travel is disabled. After obtaining the necessary tools and repair ing it, he sets off on his journey to retrieve Kurtz. Marlow finds the climate oppressive: “Going up that river . . . The air was warm, thick, heavy, sluggish. There was no joy in the brilliance of sunshine.” 1 As the steamship nears Kurtz’s camp, Marlow is advised by the manager to set anchor for one last night before proceeding up the final part of the river. The crew spends the night onboard and awakens at dawn, a scene which Marlow describes in a short passage rife with climatic imagery: When the sun rose there was a white fog, very warm and clammy, and more blinding than the night. It did not shift or drive; it was just there, standing all round you like something solid. At eight or nine, perhaps, it lifted as a shutter lifts. We had a glimpse of the towering multitude of trees, of the immense matted jungle, with the blazing little ball of the sun hanging over it—all perfectly still—and then the white shutter came down again, smoothly, as if gliding into greased grooves. (67-68) In Conrad in the Nineteenth Century, Ian Watt links the “persistent image” of “mist or haze” in Conrad’s work to his impressionistic writing style. As evidence, Watt cites Conrad’s warning that “Marlow’s tale will be not centered on, but surrounded by, its meaning; and this meaning will be only as fitfully and tenuously visible as a hitherto unnoticed presence of dust particles and water vapour.” 2 Watt also argues that Conrad presents the world around his narrators filtered

Tourism today is an activity of substantial economic importance worldwide, and has been for some time. Tourism is also of substantial economic importance in the United States, sufficient to warrant the Bureau of Economic Analysis's establishing special accounts on travel and tourism. In this paper we investigate the long term rise in overseas travel by Americans. Over the course of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries the number of Americans going abroad rose from less than 2,000 travelers to over 26 million. The industry went from one confined to the elite of American society to what some have described as mass tourism. We document this rise by compiling a long term series on overseas travel, and describe the changes in the composition of the travelers, their destinations, and their mode of travel. We use an Error Correction Model to explain how the increase came about.

90CIVIL WAR HISTORY ners, customs, modes of travel, religion, moments of happiness and of sadness, politics—the sum of life as he experienced it. The result, if not startling, is a valuable account of life in the South, especially in North Alabama. The extremely thorough work of Editor Axford is highly useful and informative. William Warren Rogers Florida State University The Battle of the Washita: The Sheridan-Custer Indian Campaign of 1867-69. By Stan Hoig. (Garden City, New York: Doubleday fit Company, 1976. Pp. xvii, 268. $8.95.) The Buffalo War: The History of the Red River Indian Uprising of 1874. By James L. Haley. (Garden City, New York: Doubleday fit Company, 1976. Pp. xxi, 290. $7.95.) Death Song: The Last of the Indian Wars. By John Edward Weems. (Garden City, New York: Doubleday fit Company, 1976. Pp. xx, 311. $10.95.) These volumes cater to the public's insatiable fascination with the Great Plains Indian wars during the closing decades of the nineteenth century. Triggered by the headlong expansion of aggressive white trespassers—buffalo hunters, miners, ranchers, farmers, townbuilders —into the trans-Mississippi West, military engagements between blue-coated cavalrymen and painted warriors defending their homelands were a mixture of savagery, heroics, treachery and confusion on both sides. Hollywood notwithstanding, "To be caught up in an attack by Indians was not romantic," writes James L. Haley; "it was a cold, mean, bloody, cruel and terrifying experience. But above all it was a revolting, ugly thing." Yet the allure of these events and such colorful personalities as George Armstrong Custer persists even for historians. The three volumes under review broaden our understanding of this frontier clash of arms, yet one laments the relative lack of scholarly interest in the fate of the Plains tribes once they ceased to be a military problem and were shunted off to isolated reservations. No doubt a major cause of contemporary public apathy toward the American Indian is the historian's failure to explore the long-range consequences of the Plains Indian wars— the linkages of the Little Big Horn, for example, to Wounded Knee I and Wounded Knee II. One of the post-Civil War era's most decisive campaigns was the Sheridan-Custer invasion of the Indian country south of Kansas during the winter of 1868-69, culminating in the battle of the Washita—the subject of an in-depth study by historian Stan Hoig. Introductory chapters trace the events which led to this contro- BOOK REVIEWS91 versial engagement: the abortive 1867 campaign of General Winfield S. Hancock, the failure of the Medicine Lodge Creek Treaties to confine Plains nomads to their assigned reservations, and the bloody but indecisive skirmishes north of the Arkansas. Angry and frustrated, Major General Philip H. Sheridan bargained that a three-pronged winter drive south of the river would catch the elusive Cheyenne and Arapaho hostiles in their home camp. For his field commander, Sheridan selected Lieutenant Colonel Custer, who trained his men intensively for their bold offensive. Custer's orders were to proceed south from Camp Supply (on Wolf Creek of the North Canadian) "in the direction of the Antelope Hills, thence towards the Washita River, the supposed winter seat of the hostile tribes; to destroy their village and ponies; to kill or hang all warriors, and bring back all women and children." He did just that. After a four-day march through heavy snow his command attacked at dawn on November 27, 1868, the Cheyenne village of peace chief Black Kettle, nestled in the Washita River Valley. The surprise was complete, just like the one sprung four years earlier —almost to the day—on Black Kettle's Sand Creek encampment. The toll at the Washita was likewise grim: 103 Indians killed, including principal chief Black Kettle; 53 women and children taken prisoner; the contents of the Indians' teepees, including all winter provisions, burned; and over 800 ponies shot. In the author's judgment, the Sheridan-Custer campaign "destroyed, both in concept and in reality, the Indian Territory as the red man's last refuge from the onslaught of white civilization. The campaign was the vanguard invasion by the white man of lands that would...

BOOK REVIEWS89 desire a reduction in the number of items included in both. Overall , however, Jones has produced a commendable study. Richard M. McMurry Valdosta State College The Journals Of Thomas Hubbard Hobbs. By Faye Acton Axford. (University, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 1976. Pp. 272. $10.00.) Seeing the University of Virginia for the first time on a rainy November day in 1847, Thomas Hubbard Hobbs of Athens, Alabama , recorded that "altho' I did not see it under the most favorable circumstances, yet I am delighted with its appearance" (p. 85). In the tradition of many educated Southerners in the antebellum period, Hobbs entered the events of his life (and whatever else happened to interest him) in private diaries. Under the skillful editing of Faye Acton Axford, his recordings, covering the period between 1840 and 1862, are now available. Hobbs was born in Limestone County, an integral part of Alabama 's Tennessee River Valley, on April 18, 1826, and was descended from Virginians on both sides of his family. He attended La Grange College in Alabama, Hoffman's Law Institution in Philadelphia, and later, the University of Virginia, where he graduated in the summer of 1849. That fall he was examined and admitted to the bar in Athens. He was married twice: in 1852 to Indiana Elizabeth Booth of Virginia ("Indie" died in 1854), and in 1858 to Anne Benagh, also of Virginia, and by whom he had two sons. The young lawyer served in the state legislature where he supported railroad development and free, schools. When the Civil War began he became captain of an infantry company that saw action as part of the Ninth Alabama in Virginia. Wounded in the fighting at Gaines' Mill in June 1862, Hobbs died on July 22. The compiler has arranged the journals into ten chapters. The book has complete index, although the type is so small that the entries are almost unreadable. This reviewer questions the decision to forego footnotes. Instead, explanatory notes, indicated by various typographer's marks, are inserted in smaller type in the body of the page and following a specific entry. Although people, objects, and events are thoroughly identified, the placement of the notes intrudes on the flow of the reading. Hobbs was an intelligent commentator. He wrote about people, both the famous and the not so famous, with an observant eye. Although deeply religious, Hobbs was tolerant of his less devout contemporaries and had both compassion and a sense of humor. His considerable descriptive abilities touched on clothing, man- 90CIVIL WAR HISTORY ners, customs, modes of travel, religion, moments of happiness and of sadness, politics—the sum of life as he experienced it. The result, if not startling, is a valuable account of life in the South, especially in North Alabama. The extremely thorough work of Editor Axford is highly useful and informative. William Warren Rogers Florida State University The Battle of the Washita: The Sheridan-Custer Indian Campaign of 1867-69. By Stan Hoig. (Garden City, New York: Doubleday fit Company, 1976. Pp. xvii, 268. $8.95.) The Buffalo War: The History of the Red River Indian Uprising of 1874. By James L. Haley. (Garden City, New York: Doubleday fit Company, 1976. Pp. xxi, 290. $7.95.) Death Song: The Last of the Indian Wars. By John Edward Weems. (Garden City, New York: Doubleday fit Company, 1976. Pp. xx, 311. $10.95.) These volumes cater to the public's insatiable fascination with the Great Plains Indian wars during the closing decades of the nineteenth century. Triggered by the headlong expansion of aggressive white trespassers—buffalo hunters, miners, ranchers, farmers, townbuilders —into the trans-Mississippi West, military engagements between blue-coated cavalrymen and painted warriors defending their homelands were a mixture of savagery, heroics, treachery and confusion on both sides. Hollywood notwithstanding, "To be caught up in an attack by Indians was not romantic," writes James L. Haley; "it was a cold, mean, bloody, cruel and terrifying experience. But above all it was a revolting, ugly thing." Yet the allure of these events and such colorful personalities as George Armstrong Custer persists even for historians. The three volumes under review broaden our understanding of this frontier...

Transport technologies changed dramatically during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, thus altering the range of mobility options available and the ways in which people travelled. In this chapter, we consider the nature of change over time and assess the extent to which personal diaries can illuminate the impacts of such changes on the travelling experiences of individual diarists. Because diaries survive sporadically, it is not possible to provide a linear view of all shifts in transport and mobility, but diaries can provide new insights into the ways in which travellers adjusted to and utilised the transport modes available. First, we focus on the ways in which the diarists studied engaged with new transport technologies as they became available, stressing the extent to which there remained both spatial and social inequalities in access to new travel modes. Second, we emphasise that older forms of mobility continued to flourish alongside new technologies, and were not always supplanted by them. Over two centuries, changes in mobility were messy, uneven, and not always linear in nature.KeywordsTransport changeOld technologiesNew technologies. Diaries

Real‐time individuals' destination prediction is of great significance for real‐time user tracking, service recommendation and other related applications. Traditional technology mainly used statistical methods based on the travel patterns mined from personal history travel data. However, it is not clear how to predict the destinations of individuals with only limited personal historical data. In this paper, taking the public transportation metro systems as example, we design a practical method called practical model with strong interpretability and predictability to predict each passenger's destination. Our main novelties are two aspects: (1) We propose to predict individuals' destination by combining personal and crowd behavior under certain context. (2) An explanatory model combining discrete choice model and neural network model is proposed to predict individuals' stochastic trip's destination, which can be applied to other transportation analysis scenarios about individuals' choice behavior such as travel mode choice or route choice. We validate our method based on extensive experiments, using smart card data collected by automatic fare collection system and weather data in Shenzhen, China. The experimental results demonstrate that our approach can achieve better performance than other baselines in terms of prediction accuracy.

Reviewed by: Building Their Own Waldos: Emerson’s First Biographers and the Politics of Life-Writing in the Gilded Age Bonnie Carr O’Neill (bio) Robert D. Habich. Building Their Own Waldos: Emerson’s First Biographers and the Politics of Life-Writing in the Gilded Age. Iowa City: U of Iowa P, 2011. xxviii + 134 pp. + notes. ISBN 978-1587299629, $29.95. Ralph Waldo Emerson was deeply interested in biography’s centrality to human history—it is, for him, a record of certain individuals’ abilities to influence or reflect their times, and it provides a blueprint to the kind of personal power that others might cultivate in themselves. This view of biography is [End Page 839] entirely absent from the six biographies of Emerson himself that Robert Habich examines in Building Their Own Waldos: Emerson’s First Biographers and the Politics of Life-Writing in the Gilded Age. The biographers whom Habich discusses are aware of the power of their subject, and they attempt to direct that power, like an electric current, so that it turns the wheels of their own cultural values. As Habich puts it, the problem Emerson’s first biographers confronted was “how to represent a figure whose subversive individualism had been eclipsed in his later years by his celebrity, making him less a representative of his age than a caricature of it—the ‘Sage of Concord’” (xiii). These writers aimed to explain Emerson’s power or significance while at the same time satisfying the public curiosity engendered by his celebrity. To do this work, Emerson’s biographers inevitably entered into “the debate over the nature of biography” in play in the late nineteenth century (6). In short, that debate concerned how much of the subject’s private life to disclose publically. As Habich explains, the Victorian value of privacy conflicted with “biography’s cultural mandate, to validate ideologies of nationality, gender, and race by making public the lives of representative men and women” (6). In the case of Emerson, the biographers tend to validate a national ideology based on balanced character, or what in one chapter Habich calls sanity. Interpretations of Emerson’s balanced character acknowledge his intellectualism and emphasize his optimism but avoid or even omit from the account the radicalism of his Romantic individualism. The biographers look to Emerson’s personal behavior and habits only as evidence of his expressed character, and by and large squelch unseemly curiosity about his private life. The cultural value of privacy, and competing ideas over how to honor it in biography, are demonstrated in the three earliest treatments of Emerson, all written or begun while the subject himself still lived but prepared with different levels of access to him, his family, and his circle of acquaintances. Ralph Waldo Emerson: His Life, Writings and Philosophy (1881) by George Willis Cooke distinguishes “between the personal and the characteristic ” (31, italics original). For Cooke, personal behaviors matter only as expressions of “the inner character,” and “by excluding the private and idiosyncratic through his biographical lens, Cooke at once accommodated the practicalities of his situation as a biographer and rescued Emerson from his Transcendental legacy” (32). Likewise, Alexander Ireland’s In Memoriam: Ralph Waldo Emerson (1882) distinguishes the personal from the private in his treatment of Emerson, and emphasizes “the application of his philosophy to his personal behavior that revealed his character ” (56, italics original). The focus on personal character, Habich argues, fit Ireland’s agenda of representing Emerson “as socially relevant and philosophically nonthreatening” (57). [End Page 840] By contrast, Emerson acolyte Moncure Conway sought “to humanize Emerson by placing him always in the company of others” (68). His Emerson at Home and Abroad (1882) represents “Emerson the social animal” and refutes conventional views of him as “the noble loner” (69). Habich’s book is especially strong in considering the three most influential early biographies of Emerson, those by Oliver Wendell Holmes, James Elliot Cabot, and the subject’s son, Edward Emerson. Holmes’s Ralph Waldo Emerson (1885)—by far the most popular of the early biographies—is, in Habich’s reading, a nuanced portrait of the man Holmes knew and respected but disagreed with philosophically. Although reluctant to expose Emerson...

Certainly one of most fervently debated subjects of political science in recent years has been bureaucracy and its place in political spectrum. The discussion has ranged from somber, footnoted articles in scholarly journals to anguished editorials in right wing press. Almost any day Congressional Record will carry speeches on subject; a great many investigations by Congressional, executive, and private bodies have examined problem; judiciary, in decision after decision, has tried to answer it in terms of both precedent and modern need. And yet, with all this discussion, there have been few attempts to develop a theory of administration based upon behavior of persons in formal organizations. It is purpose of this paper to inquire why this is true. In one sense, public administration is a stepchild to political science. While it is true that President is given substantial powers in Constitution, there is almost no mention of bureaucracy and it is quite certain that no one in Constitutional Convention could foresee time when one in every ten persons gainfully employed would be in some branch of government. The bureaucrat was, in nineteenth century, clerk who performed such simple tasks that, as Andrew Jackson pointed out, any reasonable, intelligent person could learn them in a short time. It was not until Woodrow Wilson's now famous essay was published in 1887 that public administration was recognized as a special problem, and Wilson set its intellectual framework when he defined it as the detailed and systematic execution of public law.'1 By relegating administration to means, Wilson held to traditional dichotomy between willing and doing, that is, between policy and administration, which was further developed by Goodnow. The great advantage of this was that it enabled growing bureaucracy

This chapter reviews developments in the conceptualization of self-injurious behavior throughout the nineteenth, twentieth, and twenty-first centuries. Self-injury was identified as a phenomenon distinct from attempted suicide from the early years of modern psychiatry. We trace the evolution of conceptualizations of self-injury and its relationship to attempted suicide from the eclectic empiricism of the nineteenth century and into a period of psychoanalytic theorization in the early twentieth century, and then describe the challenges to psychoanalytic theory from applied behavior analysis and the concept of behavioral phenotypes in the second half of that century. The chapter also traces parallel developments in thinking regarding self-injurious behavior engaged in by people with intellectual disabilities, autism spectrum conditions, and other neurodevelopmental conditions. As atypicality in aspects of neurodevelopment has increasingly been implicated in the pathogenesis of mental health conditions, such as bipolar disorder, which are also associated with non-suicidal self-injury, the chapter also briefly reviews arguments for and against considering self-injurious behavior in persons with conditions associated with childhood developmental disabilities as a phenomenon distinct from deliberate self-harm in the broader population.

After Australia federated in 1901, the new Commonwealth government implemented policies that were aimed at establishing a system of labour protections for white male workers unparalleled around the world. This included introducing a number of bills that became known as the White Australia Policy (WAP), which sought to exclude non-white immigration to regulate any attempt to undercut the ‘white man’s wage’. After the Harvester judgement in 1907, which mandated a ‘living wage’ for a man and his family, the national identity of Australia as a ‘worker’s paradise’ and the widespread acceptance of the necessity of a ‘White Australia’ became intertwined. This article focuses on two women’s groups in Victoria immediately after World War I, who, because of their wartime experience, rethought their position on the policy of exclusion. The Sisterhood of International Peace (SIP) and the Women’s Peace Army were ‘non-party’ women’s groups formed in protest against the war, later to merge and become the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF). Pro-war groups considered them ‘unpatriotic’ because they promoted internationalism. Yet that internationalism, and the experience of travel made the women think differently about White Australia. Their experiences made them alert to overt racism, which they found distasteful. Yet the entangled policies of labour and exclusion made them unable to denounce the WAP entirely. This article examines the efforts of the SIP and the Peace Army to navigate the tension between the labour progressivism they admired and the racism that was so interlaced with its advancement in the WAP.

This essay studies two nineteenth-century travel guides to Norway and looks at the way their descriptions and illustrations construe the national landscape. Written at the beginning of the railway era, these guides cater to a new kind of traveler – the railway tourist. This was a traveler who moved dast and effortlessly through the landscape and for whom the en route experience attained a new importance. The guides reflect this new perspective. They describe with meticulous care the attractions passing outside the compartment window and choreograph the travelers’ body and eye so that he (or occasionally she) would not miss a single vista. In his classic study of 19th-century landscape perception, Wolfgang Schivelbusch argues that this particular view of the landscape was new to the nineteenth century, intrinsically linked to the new mode and speed of travel. This essay, however, suggests that the aesthetics of the mobile eye has a longer historical lineage, stretching back to the English garden of the eighteenth century. Using the notion of the fabrique – scenic elements placed as points of view in eighteenth-century landscape gardens – the essay identifies the particular fabriques of the nineteenth century railway landscape. It suggests, borrowing a term from the French historian Antoine Picon, that the nineteenth century railway landscape is a kind of “engineer’s garden”, conceived, composed, and experiences en route.

Catherine Dollard, The Surplus Woman. Unmarried in Imperial Germany, 1871–1918 (2009), 272 (Berghahn Books, New York, $95.00). Like the woman worker, the unmarried woman in the nineteenth century c...

The media firestorm that followed Harriet Beecher Stowe's exposé of Lord Byron's supposed incest (which she first detailed in an 1869 Atlantic Monthly article and later in the book Lady ByronVindicated [1870]) provides an apt cultural site for analyzing the intersections among notions of authorship, moral authority, and literary value in the second half of the nineteenth century. Noting that a significant strain of commentary on the scandal sought to separate Byron's literary genius from the matter of his personal behavior, Ryan argues that this case study allows us to situate the declining relevance of authorial character to the question of literary valuation rather earlier in the century than scholars have typically claimed. Further, the Stowe-Byron scandal prefigures the unevenness and contestation that would accompany that development as well as the degree to which it would be complicated by the very identity categories and political investments that such a text-centered approach seems intent on eliding. Ryan notes that book advertisements and other archival sources support the view—advanced by both nineteenth-century commentators and twentieth-century scholars—that the scandal enhanced Byron's status and sales. The ensuing damage to Stowe's career, on the other hand, has been much exaggerated. The article concludes by exploring the critical and pedagogical tensions that authorship's reputational economies still engender.

Initiating Change in Highland Ethiopia: Causes and Consequences of Cultural Transformation. By Dena Freeman. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Pp. x, 180; 3 maps, 6 figures, 10 b/w photographs. $55.00. In this rich historical/ethnographic account of life in the Gamo Highlands of Southern Ethiopia-an area on which little anthropological work has been done-Dena Freeman poses the following ethnographic puzzle: In a society that practices both sacrificial and initiatory rituals, the former have remained relatively stable over the last hundred years, while the latter have undergone radical transformation (p. 1). The author seeks to explain why the two systems have evolved in such different ways. In so doing, she considers how the effect of political and economic integration of people in the newer parts of the Ethiopian state has sparked systemic and individualistic actions that have worked together to generate variation and change in politico-ritual forms. Gamo make animal and other food sacrifices to spirits who are believed to protect and guarantee the of the earth and its inhabitants. Failure to feed spirits can result in crop failure, sickness and conflicts (p. 66). Sacrifices are made by senior members of the community on behalf of their juniors. Thus, senior members are seen to be caretakers of the entire community, for it is only through their actions that the wellbeing of the community is ensured. Seniors accede to their roles through primogeniture as they assume the roles of household, segment, lineage, or clan head. In the initiatory system, individuals become halak'as for a given period of time, and in that role are said to herd the entire community (p. 84). Unlike the sacrificial system, men originally obtained their position as halak'as by sponsoring huge feasts for the community. Whereas in the nineteenth century (before the area was incorporated into the Ethiopian state), halak'as had more political power and actually passed laws, dealt with litigation, and made decisions about whether or not to go to war (p. 86), in more recent times their functions have shifted so that they are less involved in direct political leadership. However, their role in protecting the welfare of the community is maintained by observing prohibitions on their personal behavior; these prohibitions vary one community to another, but are generally associated with distancing the individual (and thus the community) from death and weakness and to associate him with success and fertility (p. 85). During the Derg regime (1974-1991), initiation of halak'as was prohibited as a potential threat to government control. However, Freeman finds that while one of her study sites, Doko Gembela, obeyed the edict and virtually stopped initiating halak'as, another site, Doko Masho continued its initiation practices. Freeman explains the different fate of initiation in the two communities by tracing the political and economic developments over the last two hundred years that have resulted in the splitting of what was a single Doko community into two separate communities with different dynamics. As they integrated with the Ethiopian state and with market forces, more men became traders and weavers in both communities, although at different rates. …