Darija and the global multilingual digital landscape

"Chinatowns, as neighborhoods for overseas ethnic Chinese, have garnered considerable scholarly attention from linguistic landscape (LL) researchers in recent years. In this study, I put Singapore’s Chinatown under the spotlight and examined its LL practices. Informed by Blommaert and Maly’s (2014) ethnographic linguistic landscape analysis (ELLA), my LL work in Chinatown not only focuses on the synchronicity and meaning-making process of the LL items in Chinatown but also takes the diachronicity of signs and signgraphies (stories behind the LL items) into consideration. With this idea in mind, my ethnographic LL work in Chinatown set out to address the following three research questions: (1) How can the LL of present-day Chinatown best be characterized? (2) How did the LL of Chinatown evolve during the different historical stages of Singapore? (3) What are the factors that contribute to the shop owners' decisions in creating their LL texts? Drawing on photographic data of 1091 LL items, my quantitative examination reveals that in present-day Chinatown, LL during the daytime and LL during the nighttime have different presentations. More specifically, the diurnal LL is characterized by the tendency towards multilingualism and the dominance of the English language, while the nocturnal LL features the leading position of the Chinese language. Also, my analysis shows that in Chinatown, Chinese Singaporeans and new Chinese immigrants differ greatly in terms of their linguistic choices in using Chinese-language signs when projecting their respective authenticities and identities. The investigation of the diachronic aspect of the LL in Chinatown mainly relied on 76 old LL photos. My analysis shows that Chinatown’s top-down LL and bottom-up LL had different features across history respectively. For top-down signs, English monolingualism prevailed in the early stage of the colonial period. Multilingual top-down signs started to appear during the independence and development period. In the post-independence period, the use of the four-official-language formula seems to have become a default practice for some top-down signs. At the start of the new century period, multilingual signs became quite prevalent in Chinatown. For bottom-up signs, Chinese monolingualism was prevalent in Chinatown during the colonial period. During the independence and development period, while there was an increasing use of Chinese-English bilingual signs in Chinatown, Chinese monolingualism still prevailed in Chinatown’s core areas. During the post-independence period, a growing number of Chinese-English bilingual signs penetrated the core area of Chinatown. In the new century, the bottom-up LL items in Chinatown have been characterized by the strong presence of English. I adopted purposeful sampling and collected interview data to explore the factors contributing to shop owners’ decisions in creating their LL texts. My thematic analysis reveals that there is no one-size-fits-all explanation for the shop owner’s linguistic choices on the LL items. Their decision-making processes for the LL items were subject to the influence of multiple factors, which can be broadly organized into exogenous factors and endogenous factors. More specifically, the exogenous factors include the target readers’ literacy factor, the language policy factor, and socio-political factors. The endogenous factors include the expression of individual identity and the expression of collective identity. My ethnographic LL work suggests that, as a dynamic process, the LL in Singapore’s Chinatown is the joint outcome of the social construction of multiple forces, including spatiotemporal composition, demographic layers, synchronicity, diachronicity, and human agency. The study enriches the scholarly understanding of LL practices in Chinese diasporic settlements in the East, provides insights into changing linguistic situations and linguistic practices within the Chinese community in Singapore, and extends the theoretical knowledge of the conditions and motivations behind the LL creators’ linguistic choices on signs. Furthermore, the study has gone some way toward pushing the boundary of LL research by integrating nighttime space as a new dimension to examine LL and shedding light on the necessity of viewing Chinatown as one heterogeneous space through the lens of LL research."

Book Review: Backhaus, Peter (2007): Linguistic Landscapes: A Comparative Study of Urban Multilingualism in Tokyo. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters; 158 Pages ISBN 9781853599460

The linguistic landscape of any country reveals a lot about the linguistic identity of its citizens, especially if it is a bottom-up linguistic landscape. In Algeria, which is a multi-cultural and multi-lingual context, the linguistic landscape witnessed a remarkable shift in linguistic preferences that is represented in bottom-up signs. This shift is characterized by the addition of a new linguistic entity, English, to the Algerian linguistic landscape. In Algerian society, it is easily observed that English is not commonly present in the top-down signs assigned by the Algerian government, which contrasts with the signs of private businesses such as fashion shops, restaurants, and coffee shops. In fact, English has been found in Algerian signs since the 1990s when foreign energy companies like British Petroleum (BP) arrived and introduced the language in the country (Euromonitor, 2012), but it has become prevalent in the bottom-up signs of private businesses, which were previously dominated by other languages, i.e., Arabic and French. For those who are unfamiliar with the Algerian context, Arabic and Berber (or Tamazight) are the official languages of the country while French and English are the foreign languages. French is the first foreign language, while English is the second foreign language. Despite this clear linguistic planning, there has been unclear planning of the linguistic landscape on the part of the Algerian government, mostly in top-down signs. For instance, the government uses monolingual and bilingual signs that disregard English in the majority of signs. The monolingual signs are either Arabic or French. Berber is used in monolingual signs only in cities of Berber ethnicity. On the other hand, the bilingual signs are mostly written in Arabic and French or Arabic and Berber, the latter signs being found only in Berber-ethnicity cities such as Bejaia, Khenchela, Batna, and Tizi Ouzou. Overall, the government and Algerian citizens have rather different linguistic landscape practices since Algerians opt for integrating English, the language of globalization, presenting it in different bottom-up signs alongside other languages.

"Language is, then, positively a distinctly human opening of an opening to the world: Not just a distinguishable or instrumental but a constitutive faculty." Williams (1977: 23) The dissertation explored the linguistic landscaping (LL) of University of Cape Town (UCT) and University of the Western Cape (UWC). The study’s purpose was to analyse language forms or modes as they are utilised in disseminating information in the public places of the Main Campus (UWC) and the Upper Campus (UCT), since Kress (2012: 205) asserts that modes are interactive channels of communication. The study was guided by five objectives (the usage of modes as forms of communication in the selected universities, the modes used to represent signs in the selected universities, the influence of cultural overtones on language use and choice, the historical and current significant semiotic symbols and signs used in the selected South African universities, and the depiction of power relations in the LL of the selected universities), which ultimately guided data collection and analysis. The interpretive paradigm was employed and it informed the researcher’s choice of Multimodality (MDA - Pienaar and Becker 2007) and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA - Kress 2003b) as theoretical frameworks and methods of analysis. They enhanced the structuring, collection, analyses and interpretation of data (written, drawn, images, among others), while also providing several means of interpreting and detecting hidden patterns in modes. An in- depth qualitative study was conducted using an explorative case study design and data were collected by means of visual-photography. A digital camera and a phone camera were used to take photographs of signs/texts inside the campuses. A total of 400 data were initially, purposively collected, however, 200 were finally selected for analysis (100 from each university), as they were deemed suitable for the study’s scope, aim, objectives and questions. The research revealed the services, and schools of thought that exist on both campuses, which may also be true reflectors of ‘the norm’ at the universities. There were inconsistencies in the linguistic structures, with regard to language practice and policy, as well as the observed political, social, and religious dynamics on the campuses. This raised curiosity regarding the effectiveness of language policy (the nation/institution), in relation to the language practices of the institutions. Furthermore, the researcher determined the influence of language as a door that opens other doors, due to the utilised modal resources. Authors seem to deliberately select texts envisioned to attract a specific audience. A few texts were resemiotised, while others were modified ideas/concepts - adopted from foreign or different texts, and languages (intertextuality). The researcher additionally identified elements of discursive silence, which facilitated a broader analysis of some identified power dynamics, relevance of time and space, as well as their impact on the LLs of the universities. Degenderisation of the disabled was also one of the key findings and it was examined from the perspective of the services (for instance, toilet spaces) rendered, as opposed to the beneficiaries of those services. Recommendations focused on the definitive promotion of genuine language practices in accordance with the language policy of the country and province in which both universities are located. Emphasis was placed on the reformation of language practice at the universities, which could impact the observed power dynamics, authorship autonomy, and unbiased and accurate historical/political information. This move can possibly promote inclusivity, racial integration, international recognition, and global marketing for the universities and South Africa (SA) as a whole. The findings provide enlightenment about the current LLs at the universities and contribute to knowledge on language practice in multicultural/ multilingual settings. A framework for LL was created based on the study’s findings, which could be relevant to the South African multicultural and multilingual context. It accentuates the need for a conscious production of texts (to accommodate a broad readership) and an adequate examination of modes (to determine both the existing and hidden elements of discourse and/or discursive practices) in the LLs of SA’s public and private establishments.

Appropriating to the Schoolscape: A Study of Reference of Linguistic Landscape in Dyad Text Construction

LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE OF THE BALTIC STATES: DATA, RESULTS, FUTURE RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES

This study demonstrates how a single type of sign can be connected to language policy on a larger scale. Focusing on the relationship between language policy and language ideologies, I investigate the private Linguistic Landscape (LL) of Hungarians living in two villages in Slovakia. Through an examination of ‘beware of the dog’ signs, it is shown how such signs can be indicative of different language policies. In Slovakia, the Hungarian public LL is often referred to as a threat to the state language and public order. This ideology is reflected on the LL so that there are mostly Slovak-only public signs in bilingual and Hungarian dominant villages. The private realm is the only significant area where a certain Hungarian dominance is present. In a bilingual village, Hungarians prefer Slovak in their public signage, while in a village with Hungarian majority people invest on having private Hungarian signs by purchasing them in Hungary as well as through hand-making signs. The counter-normativity of having monolingual Hungarian signs is underlined by several factors. First, the language policy referred to as laws have put an emphasis on warning signs. Secondly, a Hungarian language rights leaflet has elevated ‘beware of the dog’ signs as normatively bilingual. Thirdly, the context of Slovakia, engaged in nation building disfavors the public use of Hungarian. This paper illustrates the importance of considering ideologies as reflected in private LL in multilingual contexts in transition.

In this article, drawing on Gorter & Cenoz’s framework for analysing the functions and quantitative distribution of languages in signage, we explore the linguistic landscape of an ethnic primary school in China. The finding reveals a diverse distribution of languages, encompassing monolingual, bilingual, and multilingual contexts. The creators of the linguistic landscape adhere to various laws, regulations, and policy documents, which in turn reflect institutional ideologies in the linguistic landscape’s purposes and functions. However, the linguistic landscape of the school does not accurately reflect students’ language practices. The study finds that teachers predominantly value Chinese for its perceived importance and utility for students, while students themselves regard Chinese as beautiful, useful, and important, and express a strong desire to learn English. There is widespread support among both teachers and students for the standardised use of Chinese, Tibetan, and English in public signage within the school’s domain. These linguistic landscapes are indicative of a multifaceted interplay between language ideology, language choices, language education and implicit curriculum, making it a representative case study in the educational field. It also mirrors a tenuous link between the translanguaging and linguistic landscape.

Morocco is a multilingual country with rich antiquity. Seemingly, the sociolinguistic status quo in Morocco is marked by its diverse tongues, which are in regular contact. Given this assortment and variety in its linguistic landscape, Morocco opted for teaching Tamazight language in some of its elementary schools since 2003. The current paper brings to the forepart the status of Tamazight in Moroccan elementary schools to know the attitudes of Moroccan elementary teachers towards the teaching of Tamazight in Moroccan Elementary Schools. This study is based on structured interviews targeting Moroccan elementary teachers in different districts of Morocco, using content analysis as the primary method to process the data of this study. In undertaking the aim of this study, this paper addresses the following research questions: (i) what is the status of Tamazight in Moroccan schools? (ii) What is the nature of Moroccan teachers’ attitudes towards Tamazight in Moroccan elementary schools? To see whether Moroccan elementary teachers clutch favourable or unfavourable attitudes towards the teaching of Tamazight in Moroccan elementary schools and to what extent those teachers are ready for this change that touches upon the instructive Moroccan context. The findings of this study highlight that Moroccan elementary teachers hold positive and strong attitudes toward Tamazight and its use in Moroccan elementary schools. Participants stated that Tamazight witnessed a period of high-spiritedness and vivacity.

Linguistic Landscape (LL) is the display of languages in public spaces, including signs, billboards, advertisements, and graffiti. The paper reports on the findings of a qualitative study on the pattern and representation of linguistic landscape in multilingual context in Selong. The investigation focuses on sign patterns of linguistic landscape and what they represent in terms of language situation in a multilingual context. Landry and Bourhis’s theory on the definition and the functions of LL, Reh’s theory on the type of multilingual signs and Spolky and Cooper’s theory on the signs categories are used as the theoretical lense in this study.The data were collected from signs in some public spaces and along the main roads in Selong by using observation and documentation. The collected data are then classified, analyzed and interpreted. The findings of this study reveal three lingual patterns; monolingual, bilingual, and multilingual sign, written in English, Indonesian and Sasak language. The study also shows that language in the Linguistic landscape has informative and symbolic functions. The sign categories in Selong cover building name signs, prohibition signs, and informative signs.

List of Contributors Overview Map of Cases Discussed in this Book Studying Minority Languages in the Linguistic Landscape H.F.Marten , L.Van Mensel & D.Gorter PART I: LANGUAGE IDEOLOGIES AND LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE 'Latgalian is not a Language': Linguistic Landscapes in Eastern Latvia and how they Reflect Centralist Attitudes H.F.Marten Transgression as the Norm: Russian in Linguistic Landscape of Kyiv, Ukraine A.Pavlenko Minority Semiotic Landscapes: An Ideological Minefield? M.Hornsby & D.Vigers Language Ideological Debates in the Linguistic Landscape of an Irish Tourist Town M.Moriarty Linguistic Landscape as a Tool for Interpreting Language Vitality: Arabic as a 'Minority' Language in Israel E.Shohamy & M.A.Ghazaleh-Mahajneh PART II: LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE AND LANGUAGE POLICY Policies vs. Non-policies: Analysing Regional Languages and the National Standard in the Linguistic Landscape of French and Italian Mediterranean Cities R.Blackwood & S.Tufi Two-way Traffic: How Linguistic Landscapes Reflect and Influence the Politics of Language G.Puzey The Revitalization of Basque and the Linguistic Landscape of Donostia-San Sebastian D.Gorter , J.Aiestaran & J.Cenoz All is Quiet on the Eastern Front? Language Contact along the French-German Language Border in Belgium L.Van Mensel & J.Darquennes PART III: THE DISTRIBUTIVE APPROACH TO LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE The Linguistic Landscape of Three Streets in Barcelona: Patterns of Language Visibility in Public Space E.Long & L.Comajoan The Linguistic Landscapes of Chi?in?u and Vilnius: Linguistic Landscape and the Representation of Minority Languages in Two Post-Soviet Capitals S.Muth Multilingual Societies Versus Monolingual States: the Linguistic Landscapes in Italy and Brunei Darussalam P.Coluzzi Using Linguistic Landscape to Examine the Visibility of Sami Languages in the North Calotte H.Salo PART IV: FRESH PERSPECTIVES ON LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE Discourse Coalitions For and Against Minority Languages on Signs: Linguistic Landscape as a Social Issue E.Szabo-Gilinger , M.Sloboda , L.Simi?i? & D.Vigers The Linguistic Landscape of Educational Spaces: Language Revitalization and Schools in Southeastern Estonia K.D.Brown The Material Culture of Multilingualism L.Aronin & M.O Laoire Minority Languages through the Lens of the Linguistic Landscape L.Van Mensel , H.F.Marten & D.Gorter Index

Ethnic identity is dynamic and hence mutable concerning time and place. It is a social construction that involves society and its actors. Ethnic identity as a social construction is not free from the negotiation process. Such negotiations occur through various tools, the linguistic landscape being one of them. Despite the plethora of literature on identity negotiation in a multicultural and multilingual context, the linguistic landscape has not been sufficiently explored, especially considering it a tool in the ethnic identity negotiation process. Thus, how an ethnic community negotiates identity through linguistic landscape has been the major quest of the research. Therefore, the research tries to empirically examine the process of identity negotiation among the Nepali ethnic communities of Siliguri in the Darjeeling district of the state of West Bengal, India. 60 shop signs of the Nepali ethnic communities were photographed, applying the photographic data collection method. Unstructured interviews with each Nepali shop owner (ethnic sign producer) were also conducted. Photographic data were analyzed semiotically, and thematic and narrative analysis methods were adopted to interpret the interview data. In general, a mixed-method approach was used to analyze the data. The findings suggest that ethnic members symbolically ethnicize their shop signs to negotiate identity. The study shows how LL can be a tool of ethnic identity politics in India. The study signifies how ethnic communities assert identity through LL signage and how LL acts as an effective tool for identity negotiation in contemporary multicultural and multilingual Indian society. Also, this study contends that ethnicity is a relevant aspect of contemporary society and a political resource to ethnic communities.

This paper explored the role of the linguistic landscape (LL) in supporting the acquisition of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) within Kenya’s multilingual context. LL refers to the visible display of language in public spaces, including signs, advertisements, posters, symbols, and notices. Language acquisition is defined as the process through which learners gained the ability to comprehend and communicate in a new language. Multilingual context refers to a setting or environment in which multiple languages are used or coexist within a particular community, institution, or society. Language proficiency is understood as the ability to use a language effectively and accurately for communication. The paper employed Krashen's Input Hypothesis, which emphasised the importance of comprehensible input for successful language learning, to analyse how the LL impacted EFL acquisition. A concurrent data analysis approach was adopted: quantitative data were collected through questionnaire and analysed using SPSS Version 20; qualitative data were gathered through interview and non-participant observations, followed by inductive coding and thematic interpretation. The study was conducted in three purposively selected language institutes in Nairobi—Consolata Language Centre (CLC), the Language School of Kenya (LSK), and the Kenyan Institute of Foreign Languages and Professional Studies (KIFLAPS)—involving 30 learners and two instructors from each. Findings revealed that the LL in these institutes were rich in visual stimuli, such as electronic devices, printed materials, and visual aids, which created an engaging and supportive learning environment. The paper concluded that well-designed LL enhanced EFL acquisition by supporting vocabulary development, reading, and speaking skills, and by embedding language learning in real-life contexts.

Wika sa Pampublikong Espasyo: Isang Pag-aaral sa Tanawing Pangwika ng Maynila

The study of linguistic landscape as a new approach to multilingualism has not been much explored within the Indonesian context. With regard to its significance to reveal various aspects of language use in education, this paper focuses on sign patterns in school linguistic landscape and what they represent in term of language situation in multilingual context. The data consist of 890 signs collected from five senior high schools in Yogyakarta. Based on the number and kinds of languages used, the data were categorised into their lingual patterns. The language situation was interpreted based on the main functions of language as a means of communication and representation. The findings of this research reveal three lingual patterns: monolingual, bilingual, and multilingual signs, which are ordered from the most to the least frequency. The monolingual and bilingual signs were found in all five schools while the multilingual ones in three schools. Bahasa Indonesia, English, and Arabic were found in all three patterns. Javanese and French were used in monolingual and multilingual patterns. Latin and Sanskrit were found only in monolingual pattern. As a means of communication and representation, the signage is both informative and symbolic. The studied school linguistic landscape reflects which languages are used and locally relevant to the school environments and how they are positioned. Bahasa Indonesia is dominant while Javanese is marginalised. The use of English in the school signs is frequent but indicates the sign makers’ less capability of the language. The use of Arabic is related to schools’ Islamic identity. Javanese is used as a cultural symbol. Due to its importance, the existing multilingualism at Yogyakarta’s schools should be maintained and efforts to achieve its balanced proportion need to be done.