Darbo užmokesčio ir jam įtaką darančių išorinių veiksnių vertinimas Baltijos šalyse

The relevance of the study stems from the fact that social inequality is an insurmountable obstacle that has not only an economic, but also a politico-social nature of the manifestation of problem, the solution of which is only possible in case of implementation of fundamental and systemic changes in production and distribution of social goods. In this regard, this paper is aimed at identifying and disclosing the theoretic looks at the theory of social inequality. At the same time, the paper provides an extensive practical material on the real situation of the social inequality in Russia. The main methods for the study of this problem are statistical and comparative analyzes, which make it possible to consider the social standard of living of population from the perspective of social inequality in an integrated manner and in comparison with other countries. The paper contains the study and presentation of the Gini index (income concentration coefficient), decile assets ratio (coefficient of income differentiation), and other indicators of the social standard of living of population (the level of the subsistence minimum per capita, average monthly nominal wage, the ratio of the minimum monthly wage and the level of the subsistence minimum, the ratio between the minimum monthly wage and the average wage) over the past several decades. In addition, the average wage has been substantiated in the paper based on its median value; the results of the voting on the draft law on the introduction of the progressive tax on individual income, which was rejected due to the lack of a quorum of deputies, have been disclosed. The authors have identified a number of top-priority measures aimed at reducing the differentiation of population according to income level in Russia. The materials of this paper article are of practical value for the academic community and the leadership of the country with a view to reducing social inequality according to the income of population.

Research background: The government of the Czech Republic has agreed to an increase in the minimum monthly wage as of the beginning of 2017 to 11,000 CZK, which represents a year-over-year increase of over 11 %. The government is thus fulfilling its objective set out in February 2014 and stipulated in the Government Statement of Purpose, i.e. to approximate the minimum wage to 40 % of average wages.Purpose of the article: The purpose of the article is to assess the adequacy of the Government Minimum Wage Valorization Policy, in particular from two points of view. Firstly, in view of selected macroeconomic indicators in the Czech Republic ? the development of consumer prices, average gross wages, economic growth and workforce productivity. Secondly, in comparison with other EU member states which have introduced the institution of a minimum wage.Methods: In order to assess the adequacy of government policy to improve the social protection of the rights of the working population, a background research was conducted into the literature of important studies on the effects of minimum wages on unemployment, while the development of average gross wages in the CR, the minimum monthly wages in the CR and the Kaitz index were also analyzed. Furthermore, an evaluation of selected macroeconomic indicators in the Czech Republic was performed by means of time lines and the percentage representation of employees in the individual gross wage bands according to sex and type of economic activity. Last, but not least, a comparison was made of minimum wages, real gross domestic product per capita and workforce productivity in Euros and in purchasing power standards between the Czech Republic and countries which have enacted the institution of minimum wages.Findings and Value added: The minimum wage in the Czech Republic is the fifth lowest in the EU. In the long term, it is earned by approximately 3% of employees, which is less than the rate common in other EU countries. Currently, the amount of the minimum wage is below the threshold of income poverty. In comparison with the GDP per capita in PPS and real labour productivity per person employed in other EU countries, the position of the Czech Republic is significantly better, although other EU countries offer higher minimum wages. The decision of the current government to significantly increase the minimum wage as of 2017 is correct.

Before the financial crisis, the Baltic States had the highest growth rate of the Gross domestic product (hereinafter – GDP) in the European Union. Also, these States were called “the Baltic tigers”. During the crisis, the decline of GDP was the highest in the Baltic States. After the crisis, economic indicators of Estonia economy had the highest growth rates in the European Union. Such progress and life quality in Estonia surprises the other two neighboring Baltic States – Latvia and Lithuania. However, GDP of Lithuania exceeds the GDP indicator of Estonia almost twice in absolute value (Eurostat). Since October 1, 2014, the minimum monthly wage in Lithuania increased by 3.5 percent. Based on information provided by the European Union Statistics (hereinafter – Eurostat), from 2004, the average wage in the Baltic States on average increased by 8.2, 10.3, and 7.7 percent per annum. It should be emphasized that the growth rate of the average wage in monetary expression significantly fell behind the actual decline rate of the wage purchasing power. During the period of 2004-2013, the purchasing power and value of the average wage in the Baltic States has decreased in respectively assessing by the standard coefficient of inflation and the “Gold Standard”.

In-depth studies in three communities of Colombia and Ecuador, over a period of two to three months in each, were the basis of the economic analysis presented in this paper. In Santa Cruz, located at the rio Naya in Colombia, the average cost per case of malaria was US$17.30 (indirect costs US$15.80 and direct costs US$1.50); the loss corresponded to 20.1% of a minimum monthly wage (1986) or to a value of 5.6 days' work. In Perla de Sade, in the Cant6n Quininde of Ecuador, the average cost per case of malaria amounted to US$10.40 (indirect costs US$5.90 and direct costs US$4.50); the losses corresponded to 20.8% of a minimum monthly wage (1989) and to a value of 5.7 days' work. In Calder6n in the Cant6n of San Lorenzo in Ecuador, the average cost per case of malaria was US$4.80 (indirect costs US$3.50 and direct costs US$1.30); the losses corresponded to 16.0% of a minimum monthly wage (1991) with a value of 4.4 days' work. The results in these three communities, and in four additional ones, showed that the major economic impact of malaria is in the reduction of the labour force of families (indirect costs), and less so in the direct costs of care and cure. This emphasizes the economic importance of malaria because the rural familes with economies at subsistence level depend for survival particularly upon the maintenance of their labour force.

The study aimed to analyse the financial burden that co-payments for prescribed and reimbursed medicines pose on patients in European countries. Five medicines used in acute conditions (antibiotic, analgesic) and in chronic care (hypertension, asthma, diabetes) were selected. Co-payments (standard and five defined population groups, e.g. low-income people, patients with high consumption) were surveyed based on information retrieved from national price lists (September 2017) and co-payment regulation in nine countries (Albania, Austria, England, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Kyrgyzstan and Sweden). The financial burden of the selected medicines (originatorand lowest-priced generic) was described as the percentage of patients' payments for 1month's therapy or treatment of one episode in comparison to the national minimum monthly wage. The study showed large variation in co-payments between the countries. Financial burden resulting from co-payments for reimbursed medicines tended to be higher in lower-income countries (Kyrgyzstan: 9% of minimum monthly wage for generic amlodipine; 2-4% for generic and originator salbutamol; Albania: approximately 3% for originator amoxicillin/clavulanic acid and metformin). Most studied countries applied reduction or exemption mechanisms (children were exempt in five countries, no or lower co-payments for low-income people in five countries, exemptions from co-payments upon reaching a threshold of expenses in six countries). Co-payments for prescribed medicines can pose a substantial financial burden for outpatients, particularly in lower-income countries. The price of a medicine, availability of lower-priced medicines and the design of co-payments, including exemptions and reductions for specific groups, can considerably impact patients' expenses for medicines.

In the scientific literature the problematic of the salary and wage gets a lot of attention, however mostly of research is limited either by modeling of the theoretical determinants that determine the level of wages or by analyzing the effect of separate individual determinants on the level of company or a specific occupation. Meanwhile, on the sector, as well as on the agricultural sector, level there is not much of research or they are fragmented. The scientific problem of the article: what external determinants have a significant impact on the level of wages in the agricultural sector? That implies the study objective – how the determinants affect wages of agricultural sector. The methods of the research: a systematic analysis of the scientific literature, the study and analysis of legislation, the analysis of quantitative statistical data and correlation analysis. Main results: common determinants affecting wage level are being supplemented with determinants of kind of economic activities; wages in the agricultural sector depend on all the examined determinants, however effects are different. It has been disclosed that the agricultural sector’s wages in Lithuania are more than average affected by a minimum monthly wage, capital investment and direct foreign investment; less by basic monthly salary, the number of unemployed persons and gross value added.

Tikslas. Ištirti, kiek skirtingą socialinę-ekonominę padėtį užimančios mamos turi žinių apie vaiko burnos priežiūrą. Tyrimo medžiaga ir metodai. Kaune ir Alytuje gyvenančioms mamoms, vedančioms savo vaikus į 4 skirtingus darželius, buvo pateikta anketa, kurią sudarė 18 klausimų apie jų socialinę-ekonominę padėtį ir vaikų burnos priežiūrą. Gauti duomenys apdoroti SPSS 22 programa, skirtumas reikšmingas, kaip p < 0,05. Rezultatai. Nustatyta, kad vaikų profilaktinių vizitų dažnis Kaune (84,3 proc.) yra reikšmingai didesnis nei Alytuje (67,0 proc., p < 0,05). Kaune profilaktiškai pas odontologą dažniau vedami vyresnių mamų vaikai (88,6 proc., p < 0,05), Alytuje – aukštesnio išsilavinimo mamų vaikai (72,9 proc., p < 0,05). Dauguma aukštąjį išsilavinimą turinčių mamų mano, kad vaiką pas odontologą pirmam vizitui reikia vesti vaikui sulaukus 1 metų. Šios mamos taip pat geriau žino, kiek sugedusių dantų turi jų vaikas ir sutinka, kad reikia gydyti ir pieninius dantis. Daugiau nei pusės mamų ikimokyklinio amžiaus vaikai dantis valo 2 k. per dieną, tačiau tik 48,4 proc. mamų Alytuje ir 60,2 proc. Kaune pačios valo dantis savo vaikams. Didesnes pajamas gaunančios Alytuje gyvenančios moterys (47,8 proc.) savo vaikams dantis valo pačios kur kas dažniau, nei tos, kurios gauna minimalų ar mažesnį mėnesinį atlyginimą (39,3 proc., p < 0,05). Daugiau nei 90 proc. mamų vaikai tarp valgymų užkandžiauja, tačiau aukštąjį išsilavinimą turinčios Kauno miesto mamos užkandžių savo vaikams duoda rečiau (p < 0,05). Išvados. Mamų žinios apie vaikų burnos priežiūrą yra nepakankamos, nors didmiestyje gyvenančios, vyresnės nei 30 metų, aukštąjį išsilavinimą turinčios, didesnes nei minimalus atlyginimas mėnesines pajamas gaunančios mamos savo vaikų burnos sveikata rūpinasi labiau.

This paper focuses on foreign direct investments in Kosovo, based on a comparative statistical analysis of different sectors of economic activity and different countries of the world that have invested in Kosovo during the reporting period under study. We make use of the comparative analysis expressed in (%) by sorts of economic activity and aim to conclude which sector is more invested by foreign direct investment in Kosovo according to its economic activity. Whereas, through comparative analysis by different countries of the world that have invested in Kosovo, we aim to determine which are the countries that have mostly invested in foreign direct investment in Kosovo, and the level of performance of foreign direct investments during the reported period under study. The data were provided by the Central Bank of Kosovo for the period 2007-2019. In this paper we reflect the performance of foreign direct investments by years based on different sectors of economic activities and by different countries that have invested in Kosovo by applying the comparative analysis. It is of particular importance here to mention some of the options we suggest regarding to some of the government policies that should be undertaken in attracting and increasing foreign direct investments in Kosovo. Received: 7 August 2020 / Accepted: 17 December 2020 / Published: 17 January 2021

(1) To estimate the pooled prevalence of psychological symptoms in Chinese migrant workers (CMWs), as measured using the Symptom Checklist-90-R (SCL-90-R) in observational studies conducted in China, and (2) to explore the potential variables associated with the SCL-90-R Global Severity Index (GSI), the overall mental health indicator of CMWs. We performed a comprehensive literature search of the major English and Chinese databases (to June 2012). Cross-sectional surveys and case-control studies of CMWs (and controls where appropriate) that reported at least one subscale score of the SCL-90-R were included. Multilevel meta-analysis was used to pool the symptom scores of cross-sectional surveys and mean differences of symptom scores ("Cohen's d" values) between CMWs and controls of case-control studies. Multilevel meta-analysis with ecological- or study-level covariates was used to explore the associations between variables and SCL-90-R GSI score. The search yielded 48 cross-sectional surveys (comprising 42,813 CMWs) and seven surveys that included control samples. The pooled psychological symptom scores (95% confidence interval) of CMWs were statistically higher than those of norms from Chinese general population on all scales of SCL-90-R, except for obsessive-compulsive subscale in study quality subgroup analysis. CMWs also scored statistically higher than those of urban counterpart controls on all scales of SCL-90-R. Multilevel regression meta-analysis model revealed that four covariates that accounted for 33.9% of SCL-90-R GSI heterogeneity across all surveys, including: "mean age of study sample," "geographic area," "per capita GDP," and "statutory minimum monthly wage" of study site in implementation year. CMWs have more severe psychological symptoms than the general population, and thus, appear to experience higher level of psychological distress. Macro-economic factors may have impact on the overall mental health of CMWs, but the factors that contribute to mental health and mental distress among CMWs remain to be explored and understood.

Background: Vitamin B12 and folate deficiency can cause anemia which may lead growth and development impairments. This study was aimed to determine serum folate levels among infants aged 6-8 months and the relation to infants' nutritional indicators and maternal knowledge-attitude-practice about infant feeding. Methods: A cross-sectional design was implemented in infants aged 6-8 months and their mothers as respondents who met the study criteria. Data collected among the infants included sex, age, length, weight, intake of energy, protein and folate (based on a one-month semi-quantitative FFQ and a 24-hour food recall), serum folate and hemoglobin levels. Data collected among the mothers included age, education level, income based on average minimum monthly wage, knowledge, attitude and behavior concerning infant's feeding, i.e. breast milk and complementary feeding practices. Results: This study found that the median of serum folate levels was 43.05 nmol/L with values ranging from 19.92 nmol/L to 104.24 nmol/L. Serum folate level had a strong positive correlation with its related factors, protein and folate intake. Conclusions: Protein-folate-rich complementay food should be provided to infants aged 6 months and over to maintain serum folate level. (Med J Indones 2011; 20:138-42)

ObjectivesThis study aims to investigate the influence of parents and children's psychological attributes and previous fracture history on upper extremity fractures in school-aged and adolescent children.Patients and methodsBetween January 2022 and January 2023, a total of 194 participants consisting of 97 cases with upper extremity fractures (23 males, 74 females; median age: 10 years; range, 6 to 16 years) and 97 age-matched controls suffering from growing pains (47 males, 50 females; median age: 10 years; range, 6 to 16 years) were included in this case-control study. Both cases and controls were of school-age or over. The parents of the children were interviewed face-to-face using psychological scales including the Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Self-Report Scale (ASRS), the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ), the Short Form of the Conners’ Parent Rating Scale-Revised (CPRS-R:S), and the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire 2007 (DCDQ’07). The results derived from these scales and the demographics of the participants were evaluated in terms of their association with the risk of upper extremity fractures.ResultsA household income below the official minimum monthly wage (MMW) and a previous fracture history showed a higher risk for upper extremity fractures (odds ratio [OR]=2.38, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.07-5.26 and OR=24.93, 95% CI: 3.27-189.98, respectively). In the univariate analyses, elevated scores on the hyperactivity subscale of CPRS-R:S (CPRS-R:SHS) were associated with a higher fracture risk (OR=1.14, 95% CI: 1.05-1.24). Furthermore, both a household income below MMW, a previous fracture history, and higher CPRS-R:S-HS scores were found as independent risk factors for upper extremity fractures in the multivariate regression analysis (OR=2.78, 95% CI: 1.13-6.86, OR=21.79, 95% CI: 2.73-174.03), and OR=1.11, 95% CI: 1.02-1.22, respectively).ConclusionOur study results highlight the importance of known risk factors for upper extremity fractures such as lower monthly wage and the presence of previous fractures. The psychological states of parents and children should be evaluated together.

The aim of the study was to estimate the prevalence of inadequate micronutrient intake among Brazilian adults by income and educational level.The first national survey of dietary intake in Brazil included 21,003 adults between 20–59 years old (52.5% women). Foods records of two non‐consecutive days were used to estimate usual nutrient intake distributions according to the Iowa State University method accounting for the complex sample design. The Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) method was used to determine the prevalence inadequate intake. Income groups varied from ¼ of the official country minimum monthly wage (MW) to more than 5 MW and educational level from less than one year to more than 12 years of education.Prevalence of inadequate intake ≥70% was observed for calcium, magnesium and vitamin E. Prevalences of inadequacy of calcium, phosphorus, thiamin, riboflavin and niacin decreased with income and educational level. Calcium inadequacy was 16% and 32% lower in the highest income stratum compared to the lowest for men and women respectively. Similar trends were observed for phosphorus, thiamin, riboflavin and niacin. There were no socioeconomic differences in the inadequacy of vitamin E and magnesium.Socioeconomic status may play an important role in the dietary adequacy in Brazil.Grant Funding Source : Fellowship from CAPES and Grant of Brazilian Health Ministry

Essays on China's Outward Foreign Direct Investment

The transnational cooperation is seen as important research object especially in the light of today’s world challenges such as war in Ukraine, Covid-19, Euroscepticism, migration and others. In this context intensive cooperation among the Nordic and Baltic countries can be discovered as new normal for transnational development. The rationale of Nordic and Baltic countries cooperation is common interest in stability, security and welfare in the Baltic Sea region and beyond, and has existed for quite some time. It should be emphasized that the cooperation in the Nordic and Baltic region has overcome many challenges. Nevertheless, the idea of cooperation in this region is stronger than ever. In the light of global and regional political instability, it is crucial to maintain political dialogue, strengthen and develop cooperation between the Nordic and Baltic countries. A spread of stronger populism uncovered an existential tension of European integration processes. In response to the European-wide crisis it is the possibility for Nordic States react to emerging challenges by deepening the integration between the Nordic countries in the light of European integration processes during their critical moment. With reference to the context described above, the purpose of the research is to identify the added value of cooperation of Nordic and Baltic countries for further regional development. The tasks of the research were set as follows: 1) to identify benefits of cooperation among countries in the context of different theories and practices; 2) to analyse the cooperation of the Nordic-Baltic countries in the period from 1990 - 2020 and its implications for growth of Baltic sea region; 3)to discuss the EU macro-regional strategies and identify their added value for further regional development. Research methods: scientific literature analysis, analytical interpretations of the EU documents as well as future prognosis on cooperation in the Nordic-Baltic region.

The purpose of this study is to examine the intensity of technology and knowledge transfer to the selected Baltic countries through foreign direct investment. The intensity of technology and knowledge transfer across the Baltic countries varies widely, with Estonia showing the leading position in the Baltic region. The amount of foreign direct investment in three countries is linked with the level of technology and knowledge transfer. It is indicated that during the Financial Crisis in 2008, the extent of foreign direct ownership changed in all three countries and later recovered. In the aftermath of this disruption, countries recovered their stock Foreign direct investment attraction rates and almost reached their 2004 level. Latvia has achieved a 50 per cent increase among Baltic countries, benefiting from it. Foreign direct investment and technology transfer increased through effective strategies and policies. In contrast, Estonia maintains a sustained stock foreign direct investment and has moderately lower margins than in other Baltic countries. Among countries, Estonia is the dominant stock FDI absorber in the Baltic region and have made significant contributions in the region.