Cross-cohort employment differences among U.S. mothers of young children: The role of nonparental childcare

Parenting stress and perceived stigma in mothers of young children with epilepsy: A case–control study

It has been considered more or less evident that the youngest children should live with their mothers following parental separation. In Norway and a few other countries where equal parenting has been a cultural ideal, political ambition and a legal reality for some time, this seems to be changing. In this paper we explore the experiences of separated mothers of infants (0–12 months), toddlers (1–3) and young children (4–6) who had been the primary caregivers of the child before the separation, but where fathers claimed or expressed a wish for joint physical custody. We show that the mothers adapt to such wishes or claims, either voluntarily or by force. Our findings, we argue, reflect both a reduction and an expansion of motherhood: reduction as the equal status of mothers and fathers promoted through joint physical custody is achieved at the expense of the mothers and expansion as mothers are expected to ‘step aside’ and support the post-separated father in becoming equally involved in the child’s life. The study gives insight into the emotional costs joint physical custody may involve for mothers of young children – costs which should be given more consideration in political and academic debates about joint physical custody in the future.

PurposeParents are seen to mediate media behavior of their children to protect them from negative and undesirable effects of advertising. In doing so, they either restrict TV viewing by children or actively discuss ad content with children. The nature of mediation strategy to be used depends upon the age of their children. The purpose of this study is to uncover the nature of mediation strategies used by mothers of younger and older children in India. The findings and implications of the study are further discussed.Design/methodology/approachData were collected from three cities of Punjab state of India – Amritsar, Jalandhar and Ludhiana and its capital city of Chandigarh during the period November 2010 to June 2011. The mothers were the basic sampling unit for the present study as they are seen to be the primary caregivers for children. Parents of children in eight schools (two from each city), were approached through the schools. The children were asked to take the questionnaire home and get it filled by their mother. Parental mediation of food advertising was measured through a parental advertising mediation scale developed by Valkenburg et al.FindingsThe results of the present study reveal that mothers of Indian children resort to mediation of ads in general and food ads in particular. The nature of mediation is also governed by age of children. Mothers of older children primarily use active advertising mediation and mothers of younger children use restrictive mediation strategies. It is also seen that mothers mediate the exposure of food ads more strongly in younger children as compared to older children.Originality/valueAlthough vast literature exists about parental mediation of advertising to children, hardly any study has been conducted in India to investigate the nature of parental mediation of advertising to children. The present study adds to the existing literature by delving into this aspect in the Indian settings. More so, as age of children is witnessed to affect nature of parental mediation, this study also sheds light on the way parents in India mediate exposure of children to TV ads.

Although most mothers of young children work, we do not know much about the effect of this work on the mothers' health. The aim of this article is to review and discuss some of the findings on this subject, in order to understand whether paid and unpaid work are associated with mothers' health. Results from available studies show that, while employment tends to be associated with better physical and mental health in mothers, its effects are inconsistent when mothers of babies or young children are specifically examined. For physical health, employment is likely to have a negative effect for working-class mothers and a positive effect for middle-class ones. For mental health, the trend is unclear; mothers' psychological well-being is negatively affected, however, by the presence of one or more preschoolers, a lack of involvement by the husband, difficulties linked to child care, and the women's preferences concerning their professional status. Moreover, variables such as education, income, social class, housing, and marital status are likely to affect the health of mothers of young children, just as they affect the health of other women.

Background: Fatigue is a common experience among mothers of young children, yet there are few well validated tools to assess fatigue in mothers. Purpose: The aim of this paper was to examine the suitability, construct validity, and reliability of the Fatigue Assessment Scale (FAS). Method: Participants were 779 mothers of young children (aged 0–5 years) living in Australia who participated in an online survey about parent health and wellbeing. Results: Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that both one- and two-factor models representing physical and cognitive aspects of fatigue, with modifications, were an adequate fit to the data. Modified versions demonstrated high internal consistency. Measurement invariance was also established across mothers in the postnatal period and mothers of older children. Conclusions: The utility of the FAS in assessing maternal fatigue is discussed, along with implications for clinical use and future research.

BackgroundFatigue is common among mothers of infants and young children and associated with a range of negative parenting outcomes. Little is understood, however, about the mechanisms by which fatigue may impact on parenting, particularly among mothers beyond 12 months post‐partum. This study investigated the relationship between maternal fatigue and overreactive discipline, and whether parenting self‐efficacy mediates this relationship.MethodsParticipants were 252 Australian mothers of 1–4 years old children. Levels of fatigue, parenting self‐efficacy, and overreactive discipline were recorded via a self‐report questionnaire.ResultsA simple mediation model analysis provided support for the direct effect of fatigue on overreactive discipline, as well as the mediation of this relationship by parenting self‐efficacy.ConclusionsThese findings suggest fatigue may contribute to overreactive discipline in mothers of young children via two pathways: directly, and indirectly via parenting self‐efficacy. Interventions that support mothers to manage fatigue and maintain a sense of parenting self‐efficacy while facing ongoing exhaustion may promote the use of more effective and less adverse discipline responses with children.

To identify the stress experienced by mothers of young children with cerebral palsy in Bangladesh and to determine predictive factors. We recruited 91 mothers of children with cerebral palsy ages 1.5 to 5 years as they sought services at an urban and a rural center for their children. Mothers were interviewed with the Self-Report Questionnaire and other family background and child behavior measures. The children were examined by a pediatrician and by a psychologist. Out of 91, 38 (41. 8%) mothers were at risk for psychiatric morbidity. Significantly associated factors included living in the rural area within a poor family, with a relatively older child. The strongest predictor of maternal stress in multivariate analysis was child behavior problems, especially those related to burden of caring. Ensuring practical help for mothers and advice on managing common behavior problems are important components of intervention, as they may directly help to relieve stress on mothers of young disabled children in developing countries.

Despite younger maternal age being a risk factor for child welfare involvement, the literature on decision making once young mothers are investigated for child protection concerns is limited. This article examines characteristics and decision making related to investigating workers’ determinations that young children of adolescent and young adult mothers are at risk of future maltreatment. Using a provincially representative data set, this study found that children of young mothers were more likely to be deemed at risk of future maltreatment than those of adult mothers, and this assessment was also related to more intensive child welfare involvement. Among young mothers, a risk determination was strongly associated with maternal mental health concerns and socioeconomic circumstances. Practice and policy shifts should address the need for timely and effective material and emotional supports.

COVID-19 vaccine literacy and vaccine hesitancy among pregnant women and mothers of young children in Japan

The use of internet-based social networks intertwines with the mundane, and the practices and contents originating from the networks are a crucial part of individual identity constructions (Van Dijck 2013). Instagram is a social network on which users post images and short videos of users, and therefore identity and social constructs are built using visual means (Serafinelli 2018). Stemming from the theoretical framework of culture studies which focus on the social-contextual specifics of using social networking sites, the aim of this research is to offer an insight into the way one specific group - mothers of young children (from new-borns to five-year-olds) builds and presents their identity on Instagram. This research has attempted to answer the questions of how mothers of young children describe the practice of using Instagram, the way they present themselves and their children, how they establish the border between (semi-)public and private, how they observe their audience on Instagram. The basic research method consists of individual in-depth interviews with twenty mothers of young children who are active users of the internet-based social network Instagram. It has been determined that the mothers of young children use Instagram in order to present their way of life after founding a family and the challenges they face. They emphasize that their children are a crucial part of their identity, and that a photo without them is, therefore, pointless. The mothers are cautious when it comes to the content they post on their profiles, as their children's safety comes first. Due to the presence of photos of their children, most decide to make their profiles private and allow access to the photos only to certain people. The method employed to analyse the transcripts was discourse analysis.

Background: The prevalence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors is high and rising among younger women. Mothers of young children often exhibit poorer diets and lower physical activity levels than mothers of older children and women without children. CVD risk remains elevated well past the 1-year postpartum period for those with adverse pregnancy outcomes. Yet, little is known about interventions for CVD prevention among this group. Objective: To review and synthesize the available literature on lifestyle interventions for CVD prevention among mothers of young children (≤5 years) and highlight gaps to inform future research. Methods: We searched PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, CINAHL, and EMBASE for peer-reviewed English-language articles published 2009-2023 on lifestyle interventions for CVD prevention in mothers with children 1-5 years. The rationale for this age range was because the care needs for this age group are distinct from those of infants but require a higher degree of hands-on caregiving compared to older children. The review was conducted following PRISMA-ScR guidelines, with articles screened by two independent reviewers, with a third reviewer available to resolve conflicts. Results: Of 1,405 studies, none exclusively recruited mothers with children 1-5 years. Six studies were eligible because reported mean child age was ≤5 years (Figure 1). Total sample size across studies was 1,614. Five were randomized controlled trials testing in-person (n=3) or digital (n=2) lifestyle interventions. Interventions included workshops with physical activity sessions (n=1), in-person physical/mental health education (n=3), video-based physical/mental health education with peer support groups (n=1), and a smartphone app (n=1). No interventions focused on sleep or tobacco use (Life’s Essential 8 components), or addressed social determinants, which are major drivers of health. Study follow-up ranged from 6-18 months. Outcome measures included self-reported diet, physical activity, perceived stress, and quality of life, and objective assessments of blood pressure, glucose, lipid levels, and weight. Five of 6 studies reported positive results at their primary time points. Conclusions: Effective strategies to improve CVD risk in mothers of young children have the potential to prevent CV events in later life. Our results highlight a significant gap in the literature on such interventions, underscoring the need for targeted research for this population.

Objectives We examined the relationships between the development of severe mental distress among mothers of young children during COVID-19 and the related factors including difficulties in raising child, concerns about child's development, social support, and capacity to receive support using comparable pre-COVID-19 baseline data. Severe mental distress was defined by a score of K6≧10 on the Psychological Distress Scale.Methods We conducted a baseline survey in February 2020 and obtained responses from 4,700 mothers of young children. A follow-up survey was conducted in June 2020. We obtained responses from 2,489 participants of the original group. The K6 scores (four groups) of two surveys were compared. Thereafter, 521 participants who had severe mental distress at the baseline were excluded, and 1,968 participants were included in the Poisson regression analysis. We adjusted for maternal age, education, marital and employment status, household income, children's age, number of children, and changes during COVID-19 pandemic. The adjusted incident rate ratios (IRRs) were estimated using K6≧10 at follow-up as the dependent variable, and the independent variables were having difficulty in raising a child, concerns about child's development, social support, and capacity to receive support.Results At the baseline, 20.9% of mothers had severe mental distress. At follow-up, this value increased significantly to 25.3%. Mothers who developed severe mental distress by the time of the follow-up survey were 333 (16.9%), and they were more likely to have had difficulty in raising their child, concerns about child's development, lower levels of positive attitudes toward receiving support (capacity to receive support), and lower levels of social support.Conclusions The mental health of mothers caring for young children worsened during the COVID-19 outbreak. Factors related to the development of severe mental distress included having difficulty in raising a child, concerns about child's development, and lower levels of positive attitudes toward receiving support (capacity to receive support) and lower levels of social support. Providing parenting support, consultation and rehabilitation, and exploring approaches to enhance capacity for receiving support are required.

The number of years women spend as mothers of young children likely has implications for women’s lifetime wages, earnings, and time use. Much prior research has pointed to widening education differences in a wide array of family patterns, but none has examined trends in the number of years women spend as mothers of young children. We use retrospective fertility data from the 2014 Survey of Income and Program Participation to show how changes in women’s completed fertility and birth spacing produce trends in years women spend as mothers of children under age six from 1967 to 2017. Despite remarkably parallel declines in completed fertility, growing educational differences in birth spacing produced educational divergence in years spent as mothers of young children. Particularly striking is the finding that increases in birth spacing reversed declines in years spent as mothers for women with less than a high school degree such that they spent more years with young children in the 2010s than in the late 1960s. The increasing prevalence of multiple partner fertility explains some but not all of these trends.

Psychological distress among mothers of young children in rural Ghana and Uganda and its association with child health and nutritional status Eleni Vousoura Depression and anxiety, the most common mental disorders (CMDs), are highly prevalent among women of childbearing age, but are even higher among mothers in lowand middle-income countries (LMICs), possibly due to mothers' disproportionate exposure to multiple risk factors, such as poverty, gender disparities and violence, and a high prevalence of medical illness. The extra burden imposed by maternal CMDs in LMICs can be nothing short of catastrophic, affecting infant and child growth and leading to preventable illness and death among children. One possible mechanism, by which maternal CMDs lead to compromised child development, is through negatively affecting mothers' health-promoting behaviors (e.g., contraceptive use, participation in antenatal care) and child-care practices (e.g., vaccination uptake, cessation of breastfeeding, sanitation practices). The aim of this study was three-fold. First, to assess psychological distress among mothers of young children (aged 0-5 years) in Ghana and Uganda, as measured by the Kessler 6 (K6), a brief screening instrument for nonspecific psychological distress. Second, to identify sociodemographic, socioeconomic, obstetric, and psychosocial correlates of maternal psychological distress in Ghana and Uganda. Third, to explore the relationship between maternal psychological distress, child health-promoting practices, and child health outcomes and nutritional status. The study utilized cross-sectional baseline data from the Millennium Villages Project. One hundred mothers in Ghana and 100 in Uganda who had at least one child up to 5 years at the time of baseline collection participated in the study. Results provided evidence for the adequate reliability and validity of the K6 in our study. Several correlates of maternal distress were identified in the study, some of which were common for both sites, while others where site-specific. Maternal psychological distress was negatively correlated with maternal sanitation practices in Uganda. An exploratory analysis revealed a significant relationship between maternal distress and risk for child undernutrition. These findings offer partial support for the relationship between maternal psychological distress and poor child health outcomes in rural, resource-poor areas. Discussion of the study findings focuses on the social roots of maternal distress in sub-Saharan Africa. The clinical implications of the study and recommendations for future research are discussed.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship of family resilience, gratitude, and child-rearing attitude and to identify predicting factors of family resilience among mothers of young children. A correlative research design was be used for this study with self-administered questionnaires. The subjects were 248 mothers of young children from kindergarten located in Jeonnam and Gwangju provinces in Korea. Data were collected between May to June, 2013. Descriptive statistics, Pearson’s correlation coefficient, and multiple regressions with PASW Statistics 18 (SPSS 18.0) program were used for data analysis.The major findings are summarized as follows: (1) Family resilience was closely related to gratitude and four types of child-rearing attitudes. Gratitude was closely related to four types of child-rearing attitudes. And rejective attitude had significantly negative relations family resilience and gratitude. (2) The significant factors affecting family resilience were mother's education level, gratitude, affective attitude, rejective attitude, autonomous attitude and controlling attitude which explained 63% of the variance. The results indicate that gratitude and child-rearing attitude were significant factors associated with family resilience among mothers of young children. In order to increase the family resilience among mothers of young children, family programs that deal with both gratitude and child-rearing attitude should be designed.Key words: Gratitude, Child-rearing attitude, Family resilience