Cropscapes in the eye of the beholder: a time/space lens of the Maya Forest as a garden

Fascinating things to do for tropical tree forest recovery

Bray, D. B., E. Duran, V. H. Ramos, J.-F. Mas, A. Velazquez, R. B. McNab, D. Barry, and J. Radachowsky. 2008. Tropical deforestation, community forests, and protected areas in the Maya Forest. Ecology and Society 13(2): 56. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-02593-130256

Evaluating the tropical forest carbon sink

Context Tropical regions have exceptional biodiversity and serve as invaluable sources of natural resources, particularly wood (Krainovic et al. 2025). The vast array of tree species in these forests results in significant variations in wood properties, including colour, density, biological durability, hardness, and mechanical strength (Bessa et al. 2023). These diverse characteristics make tropical wood highly versatile, offering numerous applications in construction, manufacturing, chemicals, energy, and beyond. In this context, tropical forests supply some of the most sought-after wood species in the global market, prized for their aesthetic appeal, mechanical properties, and long-term durability – qualities that enhance their commercial value (Richardson et al. 2023). The abundance of forests in tropical regions ensures that wood remains accessible to both urban and rural populations. For centuries, it has been a primary material for construction and cooking fuel, particularly in lower-income areas where alternative materials are scarce or prohibitively expensive (Pipa and Doug 2014). The widespread reliance on wood has led to overexploitation, driven by unsustainable harvesting practices that jeopardise the long-term health of these forests. A significant consequence of this heavy dependence on wood is the alarming rate of deforestation (FAO 2022), which is further exacerbated by illegal logging activities. The unlawful extraction of valuable timber species not only accelerates forest degradation but also undermines attempts to enact legal and sustainable management strategies (Pan et al. 2024). Addressing these challenges requires a strong commitment to research and innovation aimed at promoting the sustainable utilisation of tropical forest resources. Achieving a balance between forest resources demand and forest conservation is essential for ensuring the viability of these ecosystems for future generations. Emphasising technological advancements, enhancing resource efficiency, and adopting responsible forestry practices can help mitigate environmental impacts while creating economic opportunities for local communities. By integrating sustainability into forest management strategies, a harmonious relationship between economic development and long-term ecological preservation can be achieved. In this sense, the primary objective of the International Conference on Tropical Wood (ICTW 2024) conference was to facilitate the exchange of knowledge and best practices that integrate the productive utilisation of wood with the sustainable use of tropical forest resources. The target audience was professors, researchers, students, ministries, and industry professionals. The event aimed to inspire further research and innovations that would enable tropical forests to meet human needs while maintaining the integrity of these vital ecosystems. This conference was organized by the IUFRO (International Union of Forest Research Organizations), in collaboration with the École Supérieure des Sciences Agronomiques and its local academic and institutional partners. As described in figure 1, the conference addressed four main themes: (i) Tropical wood identification and traceability; (ii) Wood usage in construction across tropical countries; (iii) Wood energy in tropical countries; and (iv) Tropical non-timber forest products (NTFPs). Organisation and objectives of the International Conference on Tropical Wood (ICTW 2024) The ICTW 2024 conference was scheduled from the 26th to the 28th of August 2024 in Antananarivo, the capital of Madagascar. It included invited keynotes, voluntary papers, round-table discussions, and field visits. The language of the conference and its publications was English. The conference was organised by the Research Group 5.01.00 “Wood and Fibre Quality” of the IUFRO (International Union of Forest Research Organizations), in collaboration with the École Supérieure des Sciences Agronomiques and the École Supérieure Polytechnique d’Antananarivo of the University of Antananarivo, the École Supérieure Polytechnique d’Antsiranana of the University of Antsiranana, the Institut Supérieur de Technologie Antananarivo, the Centre National de Formation des Techniciens Forestiers Angavokely, and the University of Edinburgh, under the patronage of the Minister of Higher Education and Scientific Research and the Minister of Environment and Sustainable Development. The conference was attended by 106 people (figure 2) from 10 countries, including 4 invited keynotes, 60 voluntary papers and posters, a round-table discussion with local industries and ministries, and a field visit to Mandraka Saha Maintsoanala community forest, approximately 60 km from the capital (figure 3). All presentations were held live and on-site. The scientific program committee believes the selected articles provide a comprehensive overview of the conference’s four following themes: Tropical wood identification and traceability Accurate identification of wood species is essential for sustainable logging practices, as it helps ensure that only specific tree species are harvested, leaving others untouched to preserve biodiversity (Dormontt et al. 2015). Additionally, wood identification is crucial for tracking products along the supply chain, ensuring they are sourced from legal and sustainable origins (Raobelina et al. 2023; Tonouéwa et al. 2024). This session highlighted recent advancements in wood identification methods and traceability systems, focusing on the development of databases and technologies that can support these practices (figure 4). By enhancing wood identification, the industry can better manage resources and improve the sustainability of wood supply chains. Wood usage in construction across tropical countries Wood is widely used in construction across tropical regions, particularly in rural areas where access to other materials is limited. While some examples of tropical wood used in modern multi-story buildings exist (Murphy and Smallwood 2024), most constructions are still traditional, often using wood inefficiently or inadequately (Taleb et al. 2023). The choice of wood species and construction methods is influenced by factors such as material availability, cultural traditions, technical knowledge, and economic considerations. This session discussed the challenges and opportunities related to using wood sustainably in construction, particularly in tropical climates. Key topics included designing wood-based structures suitable for high humidity, heavy rainfall, termites, and other climate-related challenges, as well as improving wood preservation techniques and exploring alternative materials such as bamboo. Wood energy in tropical countries In many tropical countries, firewood and charcoal remain the primary sources of energy for cooking, particularly in rural areas where access to modern energy is limited. This widespread use of traditional fuels contributes significantly to deforestation (Randriamalala et al. 2017; Sedano et al. 2021). To address this, it is essential to improve technologies that reduce reliance on wood-based fuels and promote the use of alternative energy sources. This session focused on innovations in carbonisation techniques, the use of improved cookstoves, improvements in wood energy conversion technologies, and the exploration of alternative fuels such as green charcoal. It also discussed strategies for enhancing wood energy production through sustainable plantation management. Tropical non-timber forest products (NTFPs) Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) have become increasingly important in tropical economies, as they offer an alternative to timber and contribute to the livelihoods of local populations (Ramananantoandro et al. 2013; Shackleton and de Vos 2022). This session focused on the latest advancements in the processing and commercialisation of NTFPs. By creating value-added products from these resources, NTFPs can provide financial benefits to communities while reducing pressure on timber resources. Presentations covered a wide range of NTFPs (essential oils, barks, resins, fruits, and more) and their applications in industries such as pharmaceuticals, food, and chemicals, highlighting their potential for both sustainable forest management and economic development. Strong relationship with the Research Group “Wood and Fibre Quality” of the IUFRO The IUFRO is a global network of forest scientists and researchers focused on advancing knowledge and research related to forests, trees, and their sustainable management. Established in 1892, the IUFRO aims to foster international cooperation among forestry researchers and institutions, promote scientific knowledge, and support the development of sustainable forest management practices worldwide. The IUFRO brings together a wide range of forest-related research disciplines, from ecology to economics, and engages in initiatives that address global challenges such as climate change, biodiversity conservation, and forest health. It organises conferences, workshops, and collaborates with governments, organisations, and stakeholders in the forestry sector to promote evidence-based policy and practices. The organisation’s activities are structured around research groups and working parties that focus on specific areas of forest science, such as wood quality, forest restoration, forest carbon dynamics, and more. Through this collaboration, the IUFRO contributes to global forest sustainability by sharing knowledge and research findings, and fostering innovation in forest science. The Research Group “Wood and Fibre Quality” of the IUFRO, part of the conference organisers, is dedicated to exploring various aspects of wood science, from its formation and structure to its processing and end-use properties. This group aims to deepen the understanding of the fundamental characteristics of wood, which are crucial for its sustainable utilisation. Through research on how environmental conditions, silvicultural practices, and genetics affect wood properties, the group seeks to improve wood and fibre quality for a wide range of applications. The group sponsors regional and international events, including technical meetings, training sessions, workshops, and symposia, which foster communication and collaboration among global experts. The goal of these activities is to share the latest developments in wood science and enhance the quality of research across borders. The Research Group currently has five Working Parties: Wood quality modelling Tree-ring analysis Understanding wood variability Non-destructive evaluation of wood and wood-based materials Fundamental properties of wood and woodbased materials ICTW conference papers published in Bois et Forêts des Tropiques The journal Bois et Forêts des Tropiques (BFT) from the CIRAD publisher was a partner of the conference by being a member of its Scientific Committee. This partnership offers an opportunity to publish a full-length manuscript in a special issue of the Bois et Forêts de Tropiques journal, showcasing notable contributions presented during the conference. Articles in the framework of this special issue will be continuously published in the form of dossiers, inserting them in the table of contents of each following issue. They will be identified with the conference logos. The first article from the ICTW is included in this present issue (BFT N° 361). The article from Ramilison et al. (2024) (figure 5) deals with a comparative analysis of charcoal produced by three carbonisation methods in Madagascar. This research is issued from a PhD thesis work (doctoral student and his supervisors), representing a great example of the ICTW scientific theme “Wood energy in tropical countries”. Acknowledgments The authors thank the ForesTIA project funded by the UK Royal Academy of Engineering, the journal Bois et Forêts des Tropiques published by CIRAD, Global Biodiversity Framework Implementation / Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH Madagascar, the #DigitAg project supported by a public grant overseen by the French National Research Agency (ANR) as part of the “Investissements d’avenir” program (ANR-16-CONV-0004), DP Forêts & Biodiversité, Groupe de Recherche (GDR) Sciences du Bois, G3D2 project funded by the Delegation of the European Union to the Republic of Madagascar and the Union of the Comoros, Biodev Consulting Madagascar, ACEP Madagascar S.A., TELMA Madagascar, Hazovato, Les Scieries du Betsileo, and Tropical Wood, for their support in organizing the conference.

Timber, Tourists, and Temples brings together the leading biologists, social scientists, and conservationists working in the Maya Forest to present in a single volume information on the intricate social and political issues and complex scientific and management problems to be resolved there. It explores methods of supporting the biological foundation of the region and keeping alive its unique and diverse ecosystem. The wealth of information included in this pathbreaking work will be valuable not only for researchers involved with the Maya Forest but for anyone concerned with the protection, use, and management of tropical forest ecosystems throughout the world.

There is growing interest in the ecology of the Maya Forest past, present, and future, as well as in the role of humans in the transformation of this ecosystem. In this paper, we bring together and re-evaluate paleoenvironmental, ethnobiological, and archaeological data to reconstruct the related effects of climatic shifts and human adaptations to and alterations of the lowland Maya Forest. In particular, we consider the paleoenvironmental data from the Maya Forest area in light of interpretations of the precipitation record from the Cariaco Basin. During the Archaic period, a time of stable climatic conditions 8,000–4,000 years ago, we propose that the ancestral Maya established an intimate relationship with an expanding tropical forest, modifying the landscape to meet their subsistence needs. We propose that the succeeding period of climatic chaos during the Preclassic period, 4,000–1,750 years ago, provoked the adaptation to settled agrarian life. This new adaptation, we suggest, was based on ...

Current anthropogenic activities in Amazonia are resulting in the widespread occurrence of fire; an ecosystem that is believed to have evolved in a fire-free environment. Even in areas away from intensified human land use, warmer and drier climatic conditions could increase the probability of fire in tropical forests. In this study the capacity of tree species to sprout following fire in disturbed moist tropical evergreen forests was quantified. Additionally, mortality and the modes of survival of standing forest trees at four sites were measured. Crown mortality ranged from 64-97 percent. Eight months after fire, 36-69 percent of all trees present on the sites at the time of burning were dead (i.e., no sprouting occurred). Out of 124 species measured (500 total individuals), 46 percent had the capacity to sprout from subterranean tissues and 27 percent sprouted from epicormic tissues. Forty-one percent of the sampled species were found to lack any capacity to sprout vegetatively. The percentage of individuals that survived by sprouting varied among tree species. Survival of the 14 most common species encountered ranged from 15-83 percent. Survival also varied among sites and this was primarily attributed to differences in fire severity. Fire severity and plant mortality were greatest in selectively logged forests that were intentionally burned for pasture conversion (> 65% mortality). One ecological advantage of sprouting over establishment from seeds is rapid regrowth and a greater capacity for exploitation of limited resources in tropical forests. Mean sprout height was 0.8-1.6 m for 8-month old sprouts and 4.2 m for 20-month old sprouts. IT IS WIDELY ACCEPTED that in undisturbed, closed canopy evergreen tropical forests, fire is an extremely rare, if not an impossible event under current climatic conditions (Mueller-Dombois 1981, Uhl et al. 1988b, Uhl & Kauffman 1990). However, with changes in land use, fire is becoming a widespread disturbance factor in Amazonia. Mosaics of logged forests, cattle pastures, settlements, and farm plots represent a new landscape in which fire is a very common phenomenon. Even in undisturbed rain forest, minor shifts towards warmer and drier conditions would greatly increase the probability of fire. Such shifts are likely if current technological, economic, and demographic trends continue (Salati 1987, Schneider 1989). As a result of an almost complete absence of naturally occurring fires (fire-return intervals of 600 or more years [Sanford et al. 19851), Amazonian moist and rain forest species are believed to have evolved with very few adaptations related specifically to postfire survival (Kauffman & Uhl, in press). Regardless of evolutionary derivation, all plants possess characteristics that may greatly influence their calacity to survive fire or some other disturbance. The capacity to sprout from epicormic tissues (i.e., dormant meristematic tissues beneath bark on trunks and branches) or from subterranean tissues following fire or other disturbance is a very widespread and probably an ancestral trait among many woody dicots (Wells 1969). Sprouting from subterranean tissues, coppicing, and epicormic sprouting has been reported to be a common means of regeneration among tropical forest species following disturbance (Knight 1975, Uhl et al. 1981, Putz & Brokaw

The management of tropical forests has evolved considerably during recent decades. In the 1970s, the colonial and postindependence emphasis on maintaining large plantations and maximizing timber production gave way to a dual emphasis on revenue generation and social forestry. More recently, the international community, including developing countries themselves, has begun to recognize the important environmental services provided by tropical forest resources, including water quality, soil retention, biodiversity, and microclimate and macroclimate regulation. Just as the prevailing view of appropriate objectives for tropical forest management has changed, so has support for the devolution, or transfer, of rights to local people. Under the previous forest-management paradigm, which stressed revenue generation and social forestry, governments and international aid agencies encouraged nationalization of forests and the gazetting of land into systems of state forest preserves. This served, perhaps unintentionally but nevertheless forcefully, to restrict the rights of locals. But as the relationship between the landless poor, indigenous groups, and the forest resource came to be better understood, more consideration was given to allowing communities to retain or gain customary and/or legal rights to the forest resource. Now, however, by adding the protection of environmental services to the management paradigm, the effects on the devolution of rights to local people are much less clear. On the one hand, some would argue that the only way to vest locals in the maintenance of the forest resource is to give them specific, income-enhancing rights to its use. On the other hand, examples abound of local populations who have exploited the forest resource in ways that are not sustainable, destroying fragile ecological relationships and degrading the biodiversity of the area in the process. The support for devolution of rights has waxed and waned over the years, with its popularity dependent on both international politics and the world economy. The question of whether to devolve rights becomes especially complicated when considering the fate of protected areas in the tropical developing world. Within the protected areas themselves, user rights exercised by local people either can be relatively benign or can have devastating effects on the local ecosystem.

I have been engaged in business and research activities of tropical forest since 1960’s. This report will be described based on these various kind of experiences. At the beginning of 1990’s when The Japan Society of Tropical Ecology was established, many peoples in the world had keen interest to the global environmental issue especially to the deforestation of tropical forest Ten years has passed since UNCED (earth summit of Rio de Janeiro), many effort and challenge were done for combatting against deforestation, by United Nation, international organization and also by many nations. However, tropical natural forest were lost 1.52 million hectares annually during 1990s (FAO, 2001). Major causes of tropical deforestation are considered as social and economical issues. Therefore, tropical deforestation problem can not be solved without improving social system and economical problems. In these ten years, technology was advanced for reforestation of tropical forest, but its technology could not well utilize due to social and economical reasons. In many tropical countries, the wood industry contribute to local economy and employment, also wood products are important export commodity. Therefore, the development of wood industry without decreasing forest resources is crucial issue for sustainable tropical forest management. In current report, background of deforestation will be described, then present situation of world forest resources and consumption, and production of wood products will be analyzed (session 1 and 2). Japan has imported huge volume of south sea logs, wood products from south eastern Asian and south pacific countries during last 40 years, which will be cleared in session 3. A answer to misunderstanding for commercial logging is described in session 4. Basing on these results, I will describe proper trading patterns of Japanese woods product import as “import cultivate resources”.

Grafting to save the forests

Tropical forest loss and degradation, as well as degradation of lands that formerly supported forest, are proceeding at unprecedented rates, eroding biological diversity and prospects for sustainable economic development of agricultural and forest resources. Between 1980 and 1990, an estimated 15.4 million ha yr−1 of tropical forests and woodlands were destroyed or seriously degraded, principally through agricultural expansion, uncontrolled livestock grazing, logging, and fuelwood collection (Food and Agriculture Organization, 1993). This is equivalent to annual forest cover losses of 0.8%, the greatest losses occurring in moist deciduous forests (6.1 million ha, or 1.00%, y−1) and in tropical rain forests (4.6 million ha, or 0.6%, y−1). Significant losses during this period also occurred in upland forest formations (2.5 million ha, or 1.1%, y−1) as well as in deciduous to very dry forest zones (2.2 million ha, or 0.5%, y−1).

In the context of ecosystem conservation, tropical dry forests have received little or no attention compared with their next-door neighbors, the tropical rainforests. This lack of conservation effort in tropical dry forests is reflected in the fact that few national parks and biological reserves protect and preserve their natural richness, and there are only a handful of real biological research stations with a mandate to bridge the gap between ecology and conservation biology in these ecosystems. The funding and legal framework developed by international institutions and local governments has been implemented mainly to protect mature forest or pristine national parks located in regions other than dry forests. Several complex reasons may explain the lack of protection afforded to tropical dry forests. One of them is rooted in the romanticized vision that the tropics do not exist beyond the Amazon basin, a vision one finds every day in the scientific and nonscientific literature and in the electronic media. Another reason is the high economic value associated with goods and services that can be extracted from tropical dry forests, which contrasts with the relatively small economic value of tropical rainforests. This exploitation is furthered by local and national governments when they use dry forests not as the last frontier but as the first frontier of economic development. In the Caribbean, Mesoamérica, and northern South America, tropical dry forests are located in the most fertile zones for agroindustry and ecotourism development, and they contain a large proportion of the human population. Thus, only a small proportion of their total area is under some level of conservation. In Mesoamérica and in Venezuela, <1% of this ecologically, socially, and economically essential ecosystem is protected. Tropical dry forests are in dire need of integrated and multidisciplinary conservation research projects aimed at expanding traditional species- and niche-based research; increasing the biological and ecological knowledge base; and including human dimensions, which inevitably underlie how ecosystems change over time. Ecological studies on tropical dry forest succession, degradation, and restoration are few and most of them have been generated from a few sites. Tied to these ecological studies, conservation schemes are necessary that emphasize the tropical dry forest's contribution to environmental services and its value as a forest ecosystem, rather than as range or agricultural land. Rather than solely promoting the conservation of forest patches that will form isolated national parks or reserves, conservation approaches that pay landowners for environmental services must be implemented. Integrated land-management plans that complement the efforts of governments and the private sector must be enforced. The payment for ecosystem services carried out by the Costa Rican National Forest Financing Fund (FONAFIFO) is a good example of the feasibility of such initiatives. Furthermore, efforts toward conservation of tropical dry forests must also address the need to consider ecosystem services provided by mature ecosystems and areas at various successional stages within and outside public lands. In fact, secondary dry forests may be the dominant landscape in the forthcoming years, as land abandoned by local farmers recovers. In Costa Rica alone, almost 50% of the Guanacaste Peninsula is covered by deciduous secondary forests. Payment for ecosystem services in the tropics, however, requires funds that are largely unavailable. For a payment strategy to succeed, it is critical that national environmental authorities display the necessary political will to invest resources and develop the required regulatory framework. But it is also fundamental that the governments of developed countries, as well as multinational agencies, international conservation organizations, and private donors, look beyond humid tropical ecosystems and expand their portfolio of conservation investments toward tropical dry forests. We could uncover a wealth of valuable information by consciously promoting land-use practices that minimize the amount of stress and land-cover conversion carried out around dry forested areas. Such an approach, combined with educational programs that promote bioliteracy in local schools and community decision-making organizations, would highlight the economic and ecological value of the tropical dry forest as an ecosystem. This approach would further uncover the contributions of tropical dry forests to society, a role that far surpasses their value for anything else. Such an approach, however, can only be explored and demonstrated by further investigating how to successfully integrate alternative land uses into the management of dry forest ecosystems. With an increasing population, a long history of land-use change, and free-trade agreements that encourage large agroindustry developments (e.g., extensive cattle ranching, and watermelon and sugarcane plantations in Mexico and Costa Rica) and a significant increase of their exploitation for ecotourism, the future of tropical dry forests, at least in the Caribbean, Mesoamérica, and northern South America, is of great concern. Land-use choices that are made around these forests will continue to influence their rapid degradation regardless of how many studies we conduct to find out what it is needed to promote their conservation. The remaining dry forests, which include numerous rare and endemic species, offer a unique opportunity to learn more about types of interactions between species and the resulting ecological processes. This information, in turn, would be of tremendous help to policy makers responsible for defining sustainable development policies aimed at benefiting threatened species (e.g., Scarlet Macaw [Ara macao], Yellow-shouldered Parrot [Amazona barbadensis], jaguar [Panthera onca], Baird's tapir [Tapirus bairdii], great false vampire bat [Vampyrum spectrum)], guayacán [Guaiacum sanctum]). More studies are also needed to understand the ecological succession of disturbed tropical dry forest left in fragments and its contribution as a stepping stone between fragments and the forest. Because small populations or communities may be recovering in regenerating fragments, these areas should not be considered waste land but rather important elements that connect protected areas. Furthermore, the immediate sharing of this ecological knowledge with local communities would help convince them to invest in the longevity of this ecosystem and to promote the recovery of degraded areas. An additional and highly contentious topic is the conflict between increasing human demands on water resources and the varying water needs of the differing components of the tropical forest matrix. The matrix is composed of deciduous tropical forest, mangroves, wetlands, savannas, and riparian forests. Such biological wealth is currently endangered by human water demands that depend on this limited resource. Increasing and uncontrolled use of limited water resources for irrigation, human consumption, and tourism—a phenomenon that translates into new dams, deviation of rivers, and the use of river discharge during low-flow seasons—jeopardizes the future of tropical dry forest biodiversity. We believe that research and conservation in tropical dry forests must generate conservation models that are promoted with the same fervor as those designed for humid forests. For example, phenological aspects (e.g., leaf shed, flowering, fruiting) have been especially neglected in large-scale studies, downplaying the fact that part of the uniqueness of this ecosystem is its phenological responses to changing environmental conditions. These "preadaptations" may be essential as global-change-coping mechanisms by tropical biotas. Many questions have yet to be answered. But if we are to understand the phenological responses of individual species and the drivers and effects of degradation and land exploitation on the phenological cycles of the ecosystem at a larger scale—including the organisms that depend on them—more comprehensive conservation efforts are necessary. These efforts must be linked to adequate funding levels that promote comprehensive in situ and comparative studies among dry forest ecosystems across the Americas.

This article dwells on the importance of current management strategies of forest resources and the way forward vis-a-vis the sustainability of the Tropical High Forest (THF) for livelihood, housing and commerce. Over seventy percent of the Cross River State population, occupying about two thousand communities live in rural areas with their characteristic mud-walled and thatch-roofed houses. Their mainstay being crude agricultural practices involving mixed cropping, hunting, non-timber forest product gathering, fishing and other resources exploitation. The high poverty level of these agrarian communities has resulted in mass deforestation of the virgin rain forest biochure for lucre and livelihood. If the importance of the rural environment as a source of industrial raw-material, waste product recycling and a life support regulatory organ has to be appreciated, there is need for sustainable forest and land-use options to protect the natural habitats and biodiversities of our rural communities. Efforts to control the unsustainable timber logging, other forms of deforestation and poor land utilization such as concession granting, check posts/control points, tariff review, revocation orders, awareness creation, formation of community management committees, and introduction of alternative forest and land-use options, among others, are covered in this article. Given the maxims of local, national and global problems confronting the implementation of these strategies, recommendations are made on enhancing the roles played by the Cross River State Forestry Development Department and Land Ordinance Act for sustainable land-use and management of the State’s forestry estates. The article concludes that enormous benefits would be reaped by Cross River State for the sustainable development of its local communities if adequate steps are taken to conserve its forest resources.

Tropical ecosystems are the major component of the biosphere rendering global influence to atmospheric conditions on our Planet and determining it well-being. Tropical forest communities are the most difficultly organized and rich of animal and plant species biological systems with internal cyclic of metabolism and regenerative processes. On a background of growing human intensification of tropical forest resources using profound and deep researches, understanding, monitoring and prognostic of reactions of tropical primary forest ecosystems on external and internal impact and destruction are represented extremely urgent now. Vietnam monsoon tropical forests are very ancient and evolutionary vegetative formations. A species composition of the tropical forests includes not less than 7000 plant species, from which more than 3000 species - trees. The greatest variety of plant species and complex vertical structure are characterizing for high-stem tropical forests. Tropical forest ecosystems represents the climatic climax and ones are in dynamic balance. This balance is determined internal and external infringements, evolutionally characteristic for these plant communities. For monsoon primary forests, natural kinds of tree canopy destructions are different forest gaps, which form as a result of fall down whole trees, break tree trunks, crowns or branches. Such phenomena as a burning or fire is not characterize for these forests. Strong storms are quiet rare events too. Forests in mountain there is a gravitation movement of a soft soil substratum or a solyphluction (landslide) is adding to gaps. Inside forest gap there is a change of a microclimate in a direction increasing insulation, temperatures of air and soil. A reforestation on gaps goes due to realization of adaptive abilities of forest trees and lianas with the minimal participation of pioneer plants. A restoration of the primary forest structure and plant species composition may be named like a demutate succession. Uses by the man for agriculture a small forest area (up to 2-4 ha) can be considered as the external factor initiating demutate succession process. However, a Man also is carrying into a tropical nature life such global destructions as cutting down and clearing on forest areas for fields and plantations and apotheosis of human destruction - military destruction forests by herbicide spraying, napalm and fire bombs during The Second Indochina war. Our research in primary and human-transformed tropical forest ecosystems in Southern, Central and Northern Vietnam has shown that forest reactions to human intervention are very specific. Reactions are determined by a complex of factors, in particular the species composition of plants, spatial structure of the forest community, presence of the main forest species of trees, phenology and physiology of forest plants, features of forest microclimate, relief, structure of the soil and its hydrology. The district Linh Thuong in province Quang Tri (Central Vietnam) - is one of the most destroyed during the War. To the present time, after more than thirty years after War grasslands, which were appeared on the place primary forests, have not undergone changes in the party of change by their tree or bush communities. Our researches in this area are proved. That, the occurrence not forest open territories has resulted in change of a microclimate, hydrological regime, properties of soil and development of erosive processes. So, in July - a most hot month - the day time temperatures of air under the forests canopy (on a point 120 cm above a surface of the ground) reached 33oC, whereas on grasslands the maximal meaning was 43oC. The temperature of a ground surface under the forest canopy rose up to 28oC, whereas on grasslands maximum was 36oC. The humidity of air under the forests canopy changed from 85 up to 100%, on grasslands - from 55 up to 95%. So, in result of the military influence to primary forests have appeared atonal savanna-like grassy communities. The complex and multi-species forest communities were replaced for the simple and mono-species communities. The main forest tree species and pioneer trees, by virtue of their biological features and changes of microclimate, are not adapted to growth and development on these territories. The global human destructions are occurred a reason of interruption successions in the forest ecosystems. The existence of such grassy communities is uncertainly long, since there are no factors - except a human factor, - capable to change a trend of their development. Using of these grassy areas for agricultural cultivation or planting forest cultures will be demanded the special scientific knowledge for development of competent and ecologically responsible technological receptions on a background of an investment of significant financial means.

Background: Currently, about 400 million hectares of tropical moist forests worldwide are designated production forests, about a quarter of which are managed by rural communities and indigenous peoples. There has been a gradual impoverishment of forest resources inside selectively logged forests in which the volume of timber extracted over the first cutting cycle was mostly from large, old trees that matured over a century or more and grew in the absence of strong anthropological pressures. In forests now being logged for a second and third time, that volume has not been reconstituted due in part to the lack of implementation of post-logging silvicultural treatments. This depletion of timber stocks renders the degraded forests prone to conversion to other land uses. Although it is essential to preserve undisturbed primary forests through the creation of protected areas, these areas alone will not be able to ensure the conservation of all species on a pan-tropical scale, for social, economic and political reasons. The conservation of tropical forests of tomorrow will mostly take place within human-modified (logged, domesticated) forests. In this context, silvicultural interventions are considered by many tropical foresters and forest ecologists as tools capable of effectively conserving tropical forest biodiversity and ecosystem services while stimulating forest production. This systematic review aims to assess past and current evidence of the impact of silviculture on tropical forests and to identify silvicultural practices appropriate for the current conditions in the forests and forestry sectors of the Congo Basin, Amazonia and Southeast Asia. Methods: This systematic review will undertake an extensive search of literature to assess the relative effectiveness of different silvicultural interventions on timber production and the conservation value of forests, and to determine whether there is a relationship between sustainability of timber harvesting and the maintenance/conservation of other ecosystem services and biodiversity in production forests. Data will be extracted for meta-analysis of at least sub-sets of the review questions. Findings are expected to help inform policy and develop evidence-based practice guidelines on silvicultural practices in tropical forests.