Counting the costs of war: A holistic, multi-level assessment of the impact of conflict on Sudan

Chapter 1: Introduction: The Political Crisis in Sudan and Conflict in Darfur Chapter 2: The Colonial State: The Political Structures of Conquest and Domination Chapter 3: The Crisis and Collapse of the African Post-Colonial State Chapter 4: The Rise and Demise of the Keira Sultanate and the Formation of Sudan Chapter 5: The Construction of the Colonial State in Sudan Chapter 6: The Failure of Sudanese Post-Colonial Politics, 1956-69 Chapter 7: The Collapse of the Sudanese State in Darfur Chapter 8: The NIF and Darfur Chapter 9: Conclusion: From Rebellion to Humanitarian Crisis in Darfur

THE PORTUGUESE PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS OF 19 JULY 1987 initiated a profound change in the Portuguese party system and in the system of government. From 1974 onwards, Portugal had moved peacefully towards a democratic political system, enshrined in the 1976 Constitution. This evolution lasted about eight years and culminated in the revision of the Constitution in 1982. From 1982 onwards the present political regime has been a democratic one, coexisting with a capitalist economic regime attenuated by state monopoly in key sectors and by public companies which were nationalized between 1974 and 1976. It is also since 1982 that the system of government has been semi-presidential. There is pure representativeness as referendums do not exist at national level and have never been regulated at local level. But the government is semi-presidential in the sense that, owing to French influence, it attempts to balance Parliament with the election of the President of the Republic by direct and universal suffrage.

Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, West Germany was considered to be one of the world's most successful economic and political systems. In his seminal 1987 analysis of West Germany's 'semisovereign' system of governance, Peter Katzenstein attributed this success to a combination of a fragmented polity, consensus politics and incremental policy changes. However, unification in 1990 has both changed Germany's institutional configuration and created economic and social challenges on a huge scale. This 2005 volume therefore asks whether semisovereignty still exists in contemporary Germany and, crucially, whether it remains an asset in terms of addressing these challenges. By shadowing and building on the original study, an eminent team of British, German and American scholars analyses institutional changes and the resulting policy developments in key sectors, with Peter Katzenstein himself providing the conclusion. Together, the chapters provide a landmark assessment of the outcomes produced by one of the world's most important countries.

BackgroundOn April 15th, 2023, intense clashes involving heavy weapons and airstrikes occurred between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF) in Khartoum, the capital of Sudan, leading to the displacement of almost 8.1 million people. The ongoing armed conflict in Sudan has led to a worsening humanitarian catastrophe, posing serious challenges to the country’s health-care system and even its collapse. Healthcare facilities have been severely affected, with barely one-third of hospitals operating in conflict zones. Hemodialysis patients are among the most affected by this war’s aftermath, which ranges from obvious dangers like violence-related injuries and deaths to more indirect effects like the suspension of access to preventive and curative medical care.MethodsThis was a descriptive cross-sectional multicenter health facility-based study aiming to study the impact of the April 15 war on hemodialysis patients in Sudan. The study was conducted in five centers in four different states in Sudan, including Gezira State, Red Sea State, River Nile State, and Kassala State. The study included 316 participants. Data was collected using structured interviews guided by a questionnaire. The questionnaire encompassed five primary domains: demographic data, healthcare access (Levesque’s Conceptual Framework of Access), physical implications, psychological impact (Generalized Anxiety Disorder scale and Patient health questionnaire), and quality of life (Kidney disease quality of life 36 scales). Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26 was used for data analysis.ResultsThis study involved 316 participants, with an average age of 47.14 and 63.9% being males. After the war, 74.7% reported being unemployed. 30.1% of participants had to flee their homes, and 18.7% had a renal ailment limiting their travel. Among the components of healthcare access affordability, it received the lowest score (5.6 out of 10). More than half of the participants were unable to maintain their regular hemodialysis sessions (56.9%) throughout the war, and 65.2% of the participants developed medical complications as a result. The GAD assessment showed 62.7% of participants had significant anxiety symptoms, while 40.5% had significant depression symptoms.ConclusionHemodialysis patients’ suffering has increased as a result of the war. Hemodialysis patients experience severe mental health problems in addition to physiological problems, including depression and anxiety, as a result of internal displacement and their inability to continue regular hemodialysis sessions. The study advocates for the implementation of a permanent ceasefire in conflict zones to ensure the delivery of critical humanitarian medical aid, particularly hemodialysis care. The study encourages stronger advocacy for hemodialysis in war-torn areas as well as collaboration with international organizations to provide such specialized care. Finally, it encourages the use of telemedicine services as a backup plan to provide continuous hemodialysis consultation and care in the event of conflict disruptions.

Turbulent globalization has driven transformation across multiple sectors, including shifts in government systems toward digital governance. This research aims to explore how government systems are transitioning to digital platforms in various countries, with a particular focus on the Asian region for a more in-depth and holistic review. The study employs a systematic literature review of digital government reforms in Asian countries over the past twenty years (2004–2024), using the Scopus database with the keywords “Digital,” “Government,” and “Reform.” It also employs bibliometric analysis using VOSviewer software. The findings reveal that several Asian countries, including Vietnam, China, Japan, South Korea, Singapore, Indonesia, and Malaysia, have initiated the implementation of digital government systems with varying degrees of success. These countries have leveraged technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT), big data, and artificial intelligent (AI) to foster innovation and improve governmental performance. However, significant challenges remain, including regional digital disparities and the need for more adaptive and responsive policies to keep pace with technological change. The study concludes that although notable progress has been made, further research is needed to identify the key factors influencing the successful implementation of digital government systems in Asia.

The on going armed conflict in Sudan since April 2023 between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) has had a significant destructive impact on the country's cultural objects and historical heritage. In the context of international law, Sudan, as a state party to the 1954 Hague Convention on the Protection of Cultural Property in Armed Conflict, has a legal obligation to protect and respect its cultural heritage, both in peacetime and in times of conflict. This article analyzes Sudan's state responsibilities under the 1954 Hague Convention, focusing on three main aspects: (1) legal compliance and implementation of the convention's provisions in the current armed conflict, (2) challenges and obstacles in protecting cultural heritage amidst humanitarian crises, and (3) international accountability and the role of the global community in upholding legal protection for cultural objects. The analysis shows that although Sudan has formally ratified the 1954 Hague Convention and participated in various UNESCO initiatives related to the protection of cultural heritage, the implementation of these obligations remains normative and ineffective on the ground. Various international reports indicate serious violations, such as the looting of national museums, the destruction of archaeological sites, and the illegal trade in cultural artifacts. The main obstacles to implementing the convention in Sudan include weak institutional capacity, unstable security conditions, the government's lack of prioritization of cultural protection amidst the humanitarian crisis, and limited national legal mechanisms for prosecuting perpetrators. From an international accountability perspective, the 1999 Hague Convention and its Second Protocol provide space for individual and state criminal responsibility for serious violations of cultural property, but its implementation mechanisms in Sudan remain elusive. Support from the international community, including UNESCO, ICOMOS, and human rights organizations, is crucial for encouraging compliance and restoring cultural heritage affected by the conflict. Overall, this study confirms that Sudan's responsibilities for the protection of cultural objects have not been effectively implemented in accordance with international legal standards. Concrete steps are needed to strengthen national capacity, provide international technical cooperation, and establish clear accountability mechanisms so that cultural heritage protection can become an integral part of post-conflict peacekeeping and reconstruction efforts.

India's artificial intelligence (AI) startup ecosystem has witnessed significant growth over the past five years, establishing itself as one of the world's fastest-growing AI markets. With advancements in machine learning (ML), natural language processing (NLP), and computer vision, Indian AI startups have been at the forefront of technological disruption across multiple sectors, including healthcare, finance, retail, and education. This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of the Indian AI startup landscape, focusing on key growth drivers, funding trends, government initiatives, and notable success stories from 2020 to 2024. The AI market in India was valued at approximately $3.1 billion in 2020 and has grown at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of over 40%, reaching an estimated $7.8 billion by 2024. The number of AI startups in India has surpassed 6,200, with Bengaluru emerging as the leading hub, accounting for nearly 29% of total AI startup funding. Venture capital (VC) investments in AI startups peaked in 2022, with over $5.2 billion in funding. However, by 2024, AI funding had declined to $560 million due to global economic uncertainties and market saturation. Despite the slowdown, India's AI sector remains resilient, with strong investor confidence in late-stage startups, which accounted for 17% of total funding in 2024. The Indian government has played a pivotal role in fostering AI innovation through initiatives such as the "IndiaAI Mission," a $1.25 billion program aimed at strengthening AI infrastructure and supporting AI-driven startups. Policies such as the National AI Strategy and public-private partnerships have further accelerated AI adoption in key sectors. Prominent startups, including Krutrim AI, Jivi, and Sarvam AI, have demonstrated India's potential to compete on a global scale. Despite its progress, India's AI startup ecosystem faces challenges such as limited access to advanced AI computing resources, talent retention issues, and evolving regulatory frameworks. However, with continued government support, increased industry collaboration, and technological advancements, India is well-positioned to emerge as a global leader in AI innovation. This study highlights the critical trends shaping India's AI ecosystem and provides insights into its future trajectory.

Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) have become a crucial element in Nigeria's economic development, addressing critical infrastructure deficits and driving growth across multiple sectors. This chapter examines the impact of PPPs on Nigeria's infrastructure development, focusing on key sectors such as transportation, energy, healthcare, education, agriculture, and housing. Through collaboration with the private sector, Nigeria has made significant progress in improving infrastructure, enhancing service delivery, and stimulating economic growth. However, challenges such as regulatory inefficiencies, corruption, and financial risks continue to hinder the full potential of PPPs. The chapter also explores future prospects for PPPs to improve effectiveness, strengthen regulatory frameworks, tackle corruption, promote local participation, and encourage innovative financing models. The findings indicate that with proper management and strategic reforms, PPPs can be a powerful tool in achieving sustainable development and long-term economic prosperity for Nigeria.

Cash transfer programmes are increasingly used in humanitarian contexts to help address people's needs across multiple sectors. However, their impact on the key objectives of reducing malnutrition and excess mortality remains unclear. mHealth interventions show great promise in many areas of public health, but evidence for their impact on reducing the risk factors for malnutrition is uncertain. We therefore implemented a trial to determine the impacts of 2 interventions in a protracted humanitarian context, a cash transfer conditionality and mHealth audio messages. A 2 × 2 factorial cluster-randomised trial was implemented in camps for internally displaced people (IDP) near Mogadishu, Somalia, starting in January 2019. The main study outcomes were assessed at midline and endline and included coverage of measles vaccination and the pentavalent immunisation series, timely vaccination, caregiver's health knowledge, and child diet diversity. Twenty-three clusters (camps) were randomised to receive or not receive conditional cash transfers (CCTs) and an mHealth intervention, and 1,430 households were followed up over 9 months. All camps received cash transfers made at emergency humanitarian level (US$70/household/month) for 3 months followed by a further 6 months at a safety net level (US$35). To be eligible to receive cash, households in camps receiving CCT were required to take their children <5 years age to attend a single health screening at a local clinic and were issued with a home-based child health record card. Participants in camps receiving the mHealth intervention were asked (but not required) to listen to a series of audio messages about health and nutrition that were broadcast to their mobile phone twice a week for 9 months. Participants and investigators were not blinded. Adherence to both interventions was monitored monthly and found to be high (>85%). We conducted intention-to-treat analysis. During the humanitarian intervention phase, the CCT improved coverage of measles vaccination (MCV1) from 39.2% to 77.5% (aOR 11.7, 95% CI [5.2, 26.1]; p < 0.001) and completion of the pentavalent series from 44.2% to 77.5% (aOR 8.9, 95% CI [2.6, 29.8]; p = < 0.001). By the end of the safety net phase, coverage remained elevated from baseline at 82.2% and 86.8%, respectively (aOR 28.2, 95% CI [13.9, 57.0]; p < 0.001 and aOR 33.8, 95% CI [11.0, 103.4]; p < 0.001). However, adherence to timely vaccination did not improve. There was no change in the incidence of mortality, acute malnutrition, diarrhoea, or measles infection over the 9 months of follow-up. Although there was no evidence that mHealth increased Mother's knowledge score (aOR 1.32, 95% CI [0.25, 7.11]; p = 0.746) household dietary diversity increased from a mean of 7.0 to 9.4 (aOR 3.75, 95% CI [2.04, 6.88]; p < 0.001). However, this was not reflected by a significant increase in child diet diversity score, which changed from 3.19 to 3.63 (aOR 2.1, 95% CI [1.0, 4.6]; p = 0.05). The intervention did not improve measles vaccination, pentavalent series completion, or timely vaccination, and there was no change in the incidence of acute malnutrition, diarrhoea, measles infection, exclusive breastfeeding, or child mortality. No significant interactions between the interventions were found. Study limitations included the limited time available to develop and test the mHealth audio messages and the necessity to conduct multiple statistical tests due to the complexity of the study design. A carefully designed conditionality can help achieve important public health benefits in humanitarian cash transfer programmes by substantially increasing the uptake of child vaccination services and, potentially, other life-saving interventions. While mHealth audio messages increased household diet diversity, they failed to achieve any reductions in child morbidity, malnutrition, or mortality. ISRCTN ISRCTN24757827. Registered November 5, 2018.

The system of informal governance, despite its weak performance in many international comparative governance indicators, turned Russia around in the early 2000s, and keeps the country functioning despite evidence of endemic corruption or economic stagnation. Despite increasing authoritarianism, the regime has the consent of the governed and is considered legitimate inside Russia. Despite what many scholars have argued on the long-term prospects of the survival of the regime, the Russian political system has demonstrated resilience and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future. Legitimacy of the regime is based both on state capacity and state national identity. The former is an entity of the latter along with a strong and unique international standing. The post-Soviet national identity that took shape while Putin has been in power has allowed for positive “national self-esteem” to flourish throughout the country. The mentality of the general population has allowed the space necessary for this narrative to evolve and for the post-Soviet identity to take shape, exhibited by the symbiotic relationship between elite action and popular support.

Existing scholarship establishes that authoritarian regimes make claims about their legitimacy yet does not tell us what makes these claims effective. This article argues that authoritarian legitimation is more effective when coproduced by the government, media, and progovernment supporters, rather than just being centrally disseminated talking points. This article uses the effective handling of the COVID-19 pandemic by the Saudi government to demonstrate how this narration translated trust in state capacity into performance legitimacy of the Saudi regime and system of governance. Saudi media figures and progovernment supporters expanded basic government talking points for audiences and discussed successful policies in relation to countries with higher international status (chiefly in the West) and higher state capacity (such as China). This article evaluates statements by the government, original media sources, and more than 90 interviews with Saudi nationalists, intellectuals, and entrepreneurs, while speaking to the relational character of performance legitimation beyond Saudi Arabia.

This article attempts to demonstrate the significance, relevance and implications of the ‘administrative subcontract’ as an analytical framework for understanding China’s intergovernmental relations, bureaucratic incentives and administrative governance. As an ideal type, the term ‘administrative subcontract’ refers to a subcontracting relationship inside the government system, representing a hybrid governance structure between bureaucracy in the Weberian sense and a ‘pure’ subcontract which occurs among independent entities having no hierarchical relationships. An administrative subcontract exhibits a coherent and consistent set of characteristics along the dimensions of authority relations, economic incentives and internal control. It is argued that these three dimensions are complementary and mutually supportive, and tend to move together if the system encounters systemic shocks. This new framework helps with identifying the key and durable features of China’s intergovernmental relations and administrative governance. The notion of the administrative subcontract enables many puzzling observations and patterns regarding the workings of China’s government system to be reinterpreted and some important and as yet long understudied issues brought to our attention. The theory of the administrative subcontract is combined with that of ‘political tournaments’ to extend the analysis of China’s political incentives and governance. With regard to vertical subcontracting and horizontal (political) competition inside the government system, an attempt is made to explain the strength and weakness of China’s state capacity in various areas of public service.

This paper examines the importance of, and variations in, political alignment within African regimes. Political alignment is how leaders establish sufficient political support across elites: we posit that formal appointments are the primary way that leaders manipulate political coalitions in order to secure their collective authority and tenure. Appointments, individually and collectively, can take on multiple characteristics: they can create inclusive or exclusive coalitions, transactional or loyal support, volatile or stable elite networks. Appointment powers have greater salience since governments institutionalized and formalized in governance systems across democratic and autocratic states. Manipulating who holds and secures power at the subnational and national levels, rather than repressive control or state capacity, underpins the stability, security, and survival of modern African regimes.

Public policy evaluation has gained renewed significance as African governments seek to reinforce accountability and improve development outcomes. The institutionalization of evaluation reflects a strategic effort to embed oversight within governance systems and respond to increasing demands for evidence use in Africa. The research examined how 28 countries formalized evaluation functions through legal instruments, administrative procedures, and organizational practices between 2010 and 2024. It focused on agriculture and economic policy, given their role in advancing structural transformation and governance reform. A structured documentary review applied a multidimensional framework grounded in institutional theory and political economy. Four core dimensions informed the analysis: legal mandates, normative alignment, cognitive uptake, and hybrid arrangements. The review covered 306 official documents, including development strategies, budget frameworks, and statutory texts drawn from planning and finance ministries, sectoral agencies, and recognized international repositories. Results revealed divergent national pathways. Some countries established evaluation systems anchored in statutory authority and integrated within planning or budgeting processes. Others relied on frameworks that lacked enforceable mandates or sustained institutional support, often shaped by external interventions. Regional patterns also emerged. Anglophone and Island States more frequently demonstrated operational alignment between evaluation and resource allocation. Francophone and Central African countries often emphasized legal form without consistent implementation. Hybrid systems appeared where normative intent coexisted with partial adherence or tactical resistance. The typology developed through the research identified embedded models with institutional depth, transitional frameworks with uneven alignment, and symbolic systems with limited operational traction. Sectoral integration and political sponsorship consistently acted as enabling conditions. Evaluation systems reinforced state capability when embedded within governance functions and aligned with domestic policy processes. African experiences challenge linear conceptions of evaluation development and reveal adaptive trajectories rooted in national priorities and evolving administrative contexts. The research contributes to a deeper understanding of evaluation institutionalization as a dynamic process shaped through interaction between state capacity, governance reform, and evidence use in Africa.

The “nexus” is a potentially very appropriate approach to enhance resource efficiency and good governance in transboundary basins. Until now, however, evidence has been confined to isolated case studies and the nexus approach remains largely undefined. The methodology presented in this paper, developed for preparing a series of nexus assessments of selected river basins under the Water Convention of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), is a timely contribution to this ongoing debate. The nexus assessment of a transboundary basin has the objective of identifying trade-offs and impacts across sectors and countries and to propose possible policy measures and technical actions at national and transboundary levels to reduce intersectoral tensions. This is done jointly with policy makers and local experts. Compared to an Integrated Water Resource Management approach, the water energy food ecosystems nexus approach concurrently considers multiple sectors and their evolution. This offers the opportunity to better involve key economic sectors—energy and agriculture in particular—in the dialogue over transboundary water resource uses, protection and management.