Conversion of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches Using The Pyrolysis Into Bio-Oil and Its Characterization for Biopesticide

The use of oil palm empty fruit bunch, an agricultural waste from oil palm plantations, as a feeding material for earthworms during composting provides an alternative source of nutrients for plants. Information regarding the ability of earthworms in processing phosphorus-enriched empty oil palm fruit bunch and their effects on plants is still lacking. The objective of this study was to compare the effects of phosphorus-enriched empty oil palm fruit bunches applied as fresh, composted or vermicomposted media in supplying nutrients on a test crop, Setaria splendida L., grass planted on Bungor (Typic Kandiudult) soil. The soil treated with phosphorus-enriched vermicomposted empty oil palm fruit bunch increased the grass dry matter yield significantly higher compared to that treated with composted empty oil palm fruit bunch and control. The root volume of vermicomposted- and composted- empty oil palm fruit bunches treated soil was similar but significantly greater than the control. There was significant interaction between dosage and type of growing media on cumulative N, P, K, Ca, and Mg uptake. However, these factors did not show significant influence on total N, P, Ca and Mg in the soil amended with composted oil palm empty fruit bunch at the end of the experiment. In general, phosphorus-enriched vermicomposted- and phosphorus-enriched composted- empty oil palm fruit bunches treated soil resulted in a greater positive effect on growth and nutrient uptake of S. splendida, and also on the total nutrient content in soil except for total K. Total soil K in the control treatment was 242.0 mg/kg and significantly higher compared to soil treated with composted- (173 mg/kg) and vermicomposted- empty oil palm fruit bunches (167 mg/kg). The vermicomposted empty oil palm fruit bunch resulted in better growth performance of the S. splendida in comparison to composted- and fresh- empty oil palm fruit bunches due to the readily available P and other nutrients being readily available to the plants.


 Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) was first introduced to Sri Lanka, as a commercial crop, about 55 years ago and was first established in Galle District as a rain fed perennial cash crop. Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) is identified as a problematic waste while releasing directly to the water streams. Both POME and Empty Fruit Benches (EFB) consists of all these required nutrients in higher proportions for oil palm plants. This study was carried out with the duel intentions (objectives) of finding a solution to the disposal of waste material accumulated in oil palm factories over many years and to improve the productivity of marginally yielding oil palm fields in Thalgaswella estate Talgaswella. The study was designed using RCBD and there are eleven treatments. Fertilizer/mixtures were prepared based of the Nitrogen amount (0.63 kg/palm/year) supplied from the recommended inorganic fertilizer mixtures and rest of the organic fertilizer mixtures were prepared with using different proportions of POME and EFB to balance Potassium (K) & Prosperous (P). A ten-year-old oil palm field was selected in year 2019 for this experiment and maintained the field for three years before the data collection. There were 33 plots, each containing six palm trees. Organic treatments included different quantities of Empty Fruit Bunches (EFB), Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME). Oil content of the fruits was analyzed at AEN oil palm factory using (Instrument-FOSS DA1650) in year 2023. All the data were analyzed with Minitab and mean separations were done using DMRT at α≤0.05 level. Results clearly show that the application of organic fertilizer to the oil palm cultivation gives significantly higher oil yield. These findings can help to improving the productivity of marginal oil palm cultivations, while providing a sustainable solution to the disposal of POME and EFB.
 
 Key words: Oil palm, Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME), Empty Fruit Benches (EFB), Waste, productivity

In this study, we propose the data envelopment analysis method as a scheme to determine the technical efficiency of a set of parametric inputs of the water absorption process when developing the oil palm particulate composite treated with an alkali solution. Although alkali-treated oil palm bunch composites have been analyzed previously for water absorption, a single parameter such as water absorption rate prevails in analyses. Unfortunately, multiple inputs and multiple outputs have been ignored and the efficiency evaluation of such composites has been missing in the literature. To address this gap, the present study exploits the linear programming theory and formulated models for each decision-making unit and solves that formulation for optimum value determination for inputs of the composites. This study investigates the technical efficiency of the water absorption in the oil palm empty fruit bunch composite development process. Overall, judging the performance of the parameters regarding the frequency of attaining 100% efficiency, analysis was performed on the average performance of all parameters in all sixteen scenarios. In this regard, the efficiency of particulate loading was 36.1%, for composite weight plus mold, it was 96.3% and for initial weight, the average efficiency score was 67.8%. It is suggestive that composite weight plus mold with an average efficiency of 96.3% is the best parameter while particulate loading with 36.1% is the worst parameter. Thus result is consistent with the result based on each scenario. From the perspective of DMUs, DMU11 with a score of 78.4% is the best ranking unit while DMU14 is the work ranking unit with an efficiency score of 60.9%. Besides, the average efficiency score for all the DMUs is 66.7%. The work is important to composite development engineers and for policy decision-making.

A composite prepared from oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) and abundantly available wild seaweed showed great potential as a soil stabilizer, which is attributed to its natural hydrophilic nature. The water absorption and thickness swelling percentages of the oil palm empty fruit bunch-seaweed composite (OPEFB-SW) were recorded at 117.2% (± 7.1) and 10.5% (± 1.7), respectively. The main objective of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the biocomposite in regulating runoff volume and water quality due to soil erosion from the experimental plots. Hence, the volume, turbidity, and total suspended solids (TSS) of the water runoff were investigated. A rainfall simulation test was conducted to test the effectiveness of the cover material (biocomposite) at different application levels (0 kg/m2 (T1), 3.0 kg/m2 (T2), 4.0 kg/m2 (T3), and 5.0 kg/m2 (T4)) of the composite in reducing soil erosion. Overall, the OPEFB-SW composite demonstrated its capability to absorb rainfall impact and therefore stabilize the soil structure. The runoff volume, turbidity, and TSS were reduced significantly to 49.1%, 94.6%, and 99.2%, respectively. In addition, the plot with 4.0 kg/m2 indicates the best treatment in regulating runoff volume, turbidity, and TSS.

Effect of Combining Chemical and Irradiation Pretreatment Process to Characteristic of Oil Palm's Empty Fruit Bunches as Raw Material for Second Generation Bioethanol

The need to manage agro waste in the environment has continued to generate worries to most developing countries. Oil palm mill waste cause pollutions of soil, water and environment but could be exploited as substrate for algal growth because of its rich mineral and carbohydrate contents. In this study Oil palm cake and Empty fruit bunch residue were obtained from Aluu, Rivers State Nigeria. The proximate, physicochemical analysis of the extract were ascertained, wavelength selection of extract was done to monitor for biomass production, growth media ratio of extract and One Factor at a Time (OFAT) was employed for the optimization of Chlorella vulgaris growth on the Oil Palm Residue Extracts. The proximate result revealed that the range of Ash (8.40 ± 0.30 - 6.60 ± 0.40 ppm), Moisture (10.90 ± 0.30 - 6.75 ± 0.65 ppm), Lipid (22.05 ± 0.35 - 14.90 ± 0.30 ppm), Protein (1.30 ± 0.18 - 0.80 ± 0.08 ppm), Fiber (25.50 ± 0.50 - 39.09 ± 0.57 ppm) and Carbohydrate (29.83 ± 0.29 - 29.29 ± 0.58 ppm). The physicochemical composition pH (5.15 ± 0.02 - 5.36 ± 0.06), Conductivity (224.15 ± 0.45 - 481.00 ± 2.00 µS/cm), DO (2.87 ± 0.06 - 4.86 ± 0.06 ppm), Nitrate (31.05 ± 0.48 - 40.33 ± 0.98 ppm), Sulphate (36.35 ± 0.46 - 50.68 ± 0.49 ppm) and phosphate (27.71 ± 0.50 - 37.35 ± 0.55 ppm) were obtained for Oil palm cake and Empty fruit bunch respectively. Wavelength of 620 nm exhibited better accuracy for the biomass monitoring and optimization investigations. Growth media ratio selected was 180:20 for empty fruit bunch: oil palm cake. The optimization revealed pH 6.0, temperature 30oC, salinity 10ppm and photoperiod 12:12 day: night as optimal condition for the growth of Chlorella vulgaris biomass. The oil palm residue can be a veritable medium for growth of this algae and biotechnological application in waste management.

National energy needs have been met by non-renewable energy resources, such as natural gas, petroleum, coal and so on. However, non-renewable energy reserves are depleting and there will be an energy crisis. Conversion of biomass into energy is one solution to overcome this. Indonesia, with its biodiversity, has enormous biomass potential, especially from oil palm plantations and also sugar cane plantations. From the oil palm plantation point of view, oil palm shells and oil palm empty fruit bunches are side products. These wastes can be treated with gasification technology to produce gas fuel. The gasification tool model used in this study is a downdraft gasifier equipped with a cyclone to separate gases with solids or liquids resulting from the gasification process. The results of the gasification process show that the more feeds are introduced, the more syngas is produced during the gasification process. The more feeds, the longer the syngas release time. The two variables have a correlation, that is, between the weight of syngas and the time for syngas removal to increase in line with the addition of the amount of feed entered. Syngas analysis of oil palm empty fruit bunches contains 4.959% H2 and 5.759% CO. Whereas the analysis of syngas of oil palm shells contained 2.524% H2, 6.391% CO, and 0.895% CH4.

Development and material properties of new hybrid plywood from oil palm biomass

In this study, the diffusion of various types of solvent in oil palm empty fruit bunch/polyurethane composites, produced from chemically modified empty fruit bunches, was investigated. The solubility parameters and polymer–solvent interaction parameters of the produced composites were determined. The void contents of the composites were also determined before swelling tests to eliminate the free solvent present in the system. From the results obtained, we found that the diffusion of the solvents was dependent on the compatible group available and the voids present in the system. The solubility parameters of the empty fruit bunch/polyurethane composites with different degrees of chemical modification were 11.6 and 11.7 (cal/cm−3)1/2. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2008

Acid mine drainage (AMD) is resulting from the exposure of rock containing ferrous of ferric sulfide mineral to rainwater and oxygen result in the generation of AMD. AMD characterized by highly acidic pH water with pH range ≤ 5 and containing heavy metals (Fe, Mn, Al) with high concentration. Therefore, AMD must be treated to ensure safety and minimize the environmental risk in order to request from the Ministry of Environmental Readmitted Number 113 the Year 2003. The solution is using a passive treatment method with constructed wetland technology. Empty oil palm fruit having nutritive content with high relativity like N, P, K and if it is composted having pH value till 8 so that is potential to improve soil and water acidity. This research is to know the effect of giving variations measurement of empty oil palm fruit to constructed wetland technology for acid mine drainage management to fit the value of quality standard liquid wasted coal. This study using a randomized block design consisting of a single factor with 6 treatments and 3 replicants. Research has shown that giving various measurements of empty oil palm fruit has a real impact to increase the pH value, and decreasing Mn at AMD, but has no real impact on decreasing Fe (Fe 2+ ) value.

The valorization of agroindustrial solid wastes, particularly oil palm residues such as empty fruit bunches (EFB), for sustainable and green chemistry initiatives has gained momentum in recent years. This paper explores the extraction of amorphous silica from EFB ash as a means to repurpose this abundant waste material. Characterization of the silica nanoparticles was conducted through scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), particle size and zeta potential analysis, and X-ray diffractometer (XRD) analysis. SEM images revealed irregular shapes and varied compositions of the nanoparticles, while FTIR confirmed the presence of silanol groups and CTAB molecules on the surface. Particle size analysis indicated a size of approximately 962 nm with a zeta potential of -26.9 mV, suggesting negatively charged surfaces. XRD analysis confirmed the amorphous nature of the silica nanoparticles. Overall, this study demonstrates a novel approach to extract silica from EFB ash, highlighting its potential for various applications such as adsorbents, catalysts, and biopolymers, thus contributing to sustainable waste management and green chemistry practices.

The objective of this study was to determine the properties of biochar from meranti (Shorea sp.) and oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) empty fruit bunches (OPEFB). Biochar was produced using a traditional kiln with a temperature of 400°C and 600°C. The char yield, pH, and proximate analysis were evaluated. The results showed that the maximum char yield was obtained at 400°C, and the increase in temperature resulted in decreased char yield. At the same pyrolysis temperature, char yield was higher in meranti than OPEFB. The results revealed that the pH of meranti and OPEFB changed into basic after pyrolysis, which is essential when biochar is added to soil to neutralize soil acidity and increase the soil cation exchange capacity. The results also showed an increase of fixed carbon in meranti and OPEFB after pyrolysis at 400°C and 600°C. The higher heating values (HHV) in meranti and OPEFB increased after pyrolysis, with a remarkable increase of HHV observed in meranti than OPEFB, showing a higher potential of biochar from meranti to be used for bioenergy application than OPEFB.

Consumption of fossil energy continues to increase and therefore fossil energy reserves are decreasing, thus the switchover of using fossil energy into new and renewable energy is necessary. Biomass especially from oil palm empty fruit bunches is one of potential resource as new and renewable energy that can mixture with coal as fuel for power plant. However, biomass from oil palm empty fruit bunches has several weaknesses as fuel; it is containing of high potassium content and low heating value. Potassium content will react with oxygen and resulting potassium oxide (K2O) in the furnace of boiler and it can cause the fouling and slagging at the tubes and walls of boiler. Washing with flowing peat water is one of method that used to reduce potassium content in empty oil palm fruit bunches and torrefaction at 300C is a method is use to increase the heating value of biomass from empty oil palm fruit bunches. This research resulted the potassium, potassium oxide content is 5% and 3.7% respectively by flowing peat water at 5 lpm for 60 minutes, and the heating value of biomass by torrefaction process at 300C for 30 minute was obtain at 28742.17 kJ/kg.

The waste of palm oil industry that can be used as raw materials for pulp making industry is palm oil empty fruit bunches. The common method used in the pulp production process is Formacell. However, formacell process produced dark pulp because of high lignin content. Therefore it needs further process called delignification. This process utilized H2O2 in acetic acid media to improve pulp qualities. The aim of this research was to determine the effect of different concentrations of H2O2 in acetic acid media on the characteristics of pulp formacell from palm oil empty fruit bunches. The experiment was arranged in a Complete Randomized Block Design with a single treatment and 3 replications. The treatment was nine levels of H2O2 concentration ( 0%, 3%, 6%, 9%, 12%, 15%, 18%, 21%, 24%) in acetic acid media at a temperature of 85oC for 3 hours. The data homogenity and additivity were analyzed using Berlett and Tuckey Tests, then they were analyze for ANOVA to see any difference in the data and then tested further using Ortogonal Polinomial. The results showed that the concentration of H2O2 in acetic acid media had significant effect on yield, cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and color of pulp from palm-oil empty fruit bunches. The result of ortogonal polynomial test showed the increase in concentrations of H2O2 in acetic acid media linearly decreased yield and hemicellulose, linearly increased organoleptic color score, quadratically decreased lignin content , and quadratically increased cellulose until concentration 50% of H2O2 in15% acetic acid media, beyond that, the cellulose content decreased. The best results showed that 50% of H2O2 in 15% of acetic acid media cooked for 3 hours gave the best pulp. This pulp contained cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin of 84.494% 6.319% and 5.691% . The yield was 84.85%, and the average organoleptic score for color was 4. Keywords: acetic acid, delignification, formacell pulp, H2O2, oil palm empty fruit bunches

The palm oil industry is one of the agro-based industries that has a high contribution to the global economy, including Malaysia.However, there is a negative impact on the environment caused by palm oil production, which results in high waste pollution known as palm oil mill effluent (POME).A common practice for the palm oil industry regarding the POME treatment is using conventional coagulant and flocculant agents due to their effectiveness and affordable cost.However, high usage of agents in wastewater treatment can threaten human and environmental health, such as air and soil pollution, water pollution, and disease transmission.The palm oil industry also produces other waste such as oil palm mesocarp (OPM) and oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) which have the potential to be utilized due to their existence of a hydroxyl group in cellulose and lignin.Therefore, this study provides a novel approach by utilizing naturally occurring functional groups in OPM-OPEFB to facilitate pollutant removal in POME as sustainable natural coagulants-flocculants.The effective treatment of POME is critical for reducing its environmental footprint, given the high organic content and large quantities generated by the palm oil industry.This study demonstrates the ability of these biopolymers to achieve significant reductions in turbidity and suspended solids, aligning with the principles of green chemistry.The effectiveness of lignocellulose biomass in enhancing coagulation-flocculation, offering a sustainability alternative to conventional chemical coagulants.For the coagulationflocculation treatment of POME, jar tests were performed to evaluate the effectiveness of the process.The parameters measured for the untreated and treated POME are pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), turbidity (TUR), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total suspended solids (TSS), and ammoniacal nitrogen (AN).Removal efficiencies of pH, TUR, KeywordsPalm oil mill effluent (POME), Oil palm mesocarp(OPM), Palm oil empty fruit bunch (POEFB), coagulation-flocculation Int.Journal of Integrated Engineering Vol. 17 No. 1 (2025) p. 278-288 279 BOD, TSS, and AN were 7.39%, 41.28%, 53.14%, 62.69%, and 30.56% respectively for OPM-OPEFB.Results obtained from characterization show that the coagulation-flocculation mechanism was ruled by the existence of a hydroxyl group and hydrogen bond in cellulose and lignin that increase the rate of absorption and bonding.OPM-OPEFB demonstrates the potential to lower the organic contaminants.Therefore, optimizing contact time and coagulant dosage may enhance the effectiveness of the removal of organic pollutant in the POME.