Abstract
Oxidative stress reflects an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidant defense systems, and it can be associated with the pathogenesis and progression of neurodegenerative diseases such as multiple sclerosis, stroke, and Parkinson’s disease (PD). The application of antioxidants, which can defend against oxidative stress, is able to detoxify the reactive intermediates and prevent neurodegeneration resulting from excessive ROS production. There are many reports showing that numerous flavonoids, a large group of natural phenolic compounds, can act as antioxidants and the application of flavonoids has beneficial effects in the adult brain. For instance, it is well known that the long-term consumption of the green tea-derived flavonoids catechin and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) can attenuate the onset of PD. Also, flavonoids such as ampelopsin and pinocembrin can inhibit mitochondrial dysfunction and neuronal death through the regulation of gene expression of the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway. Additionally, it is well established that many flavonoids exhibit anti-apoptosis and anti-inflammatory effects through cellular signaling pathways, such as those involving (ERK), glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β), and (Akt), resulting in neuroprotection. In this review article, we have described the oxidative stress involved in PD and explained the therapeutic potential of flavonoids to protect the nigrostriatal DA system, which may be useful to prevent PD.
Highlights
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a chronic and slow progressive neurological disease that is associated with the progressive degeneration of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra (SN)and reduced levels of striatal dopamine and its metabolites in the adult brain [1,2,3]
The pathogenic mechanisms of PD causing the degeneration of the nigrostriatal DA system still remain unclear, it is well known that the upregulation of risk factors is involved in the pathogenesis and progression of PD [4,5,6,7], and the following circumstances are highly responsible for the onset of PD: neuroinflammation [8,9], mismanagement of apoptosis [10,11,12] and autophagy [10,11,12,13], genetic mutations [5,14], neurotrophic
Oxidative stress is frequently referred to as a risk factor of pathogenesis involved with a variety of diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, cancers, and neurodegenerative diseases [218]
Summary
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a chronic and slow progressive neurological disease that is associated with the progressive degeneration of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra (SN). Flavonoids are ubiquitously found in flowers, fruits, herbs, vegetables, nuts, grains, plant-derived beverages, and even chocolate [29,30,35,36,39] Within the cell, they are present in chloroplasts, a type of plastid that is the cellular organelle responsible for photosynthesis. Because flavonoids are abundant in cellular organelles, we can infer that they mediate ROS scavenging mechanisms to protect plants against the oxidative stress that results from anabolic metabolism [30,33,36,37,38,40] and contribute to the maintenance of redox balance because of their thermodynamically low electron potentials [33,36,41].
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