Contact or Inheritance? New Evidence on the Proto-Philippines Hypothesis

The Relationship of Umiray Dumaget to Other Philippine Languages Ronald S. Himes Abstract Most scholars who have addressed the problem of categorizing Philippine languages have related Umiray Dumaget (DGTU) most closely to other languages spoken by Negritos in northeastern Luzon, languages in the Cordilleran microgroup. Reid (1994) suggests that DGTU is not a Cordilleran language but rather that it is relatable to Bikol, a Central Philippine language. While the evidence from phonological changes and the pronominal system does not compel us to favor one subgrouping over the other, the lexical data do show that DGTU is most closely related to the Central Philippine languages. Culturally, we can infer that DGTU results from very early contact between the non-Austronesian-speaking Negrito population and speakers of that variety of Central Philippine that evolved into Tagalog, Bikol, and the Bisayan languages. A consequence of this grouping is that any inherited lexeme that DGTU shares with non-Central Philippine languages must be assigned to a higher level. 1. Background.1 East Central Luzon is the homeland of the group of about 3,000 people speaking Umiray Dumaget (DGTU). "Dumagat" is an exonym applied to a wide variety of groups of the Negrito physical type, most of whom prefer the term Agta, Alta, Ayta, or some other derivative of the Proto-Philippines (PPH(Z)) *qaRta[ ] 'person'.2 Local names for the group in question abound—tagi kellogen, tagi bulus, tagi kabuluwen, tagi depoynga, and so forth—but the designation Umiray has most often been used in the literature (Macleod 1972, McFarland 1980, Walton 1979, Thomas and Gieser 1973, Reid 1994). This language covers a relatively wide area of eastern Luzon from southern Aurora, just south of Baler, along the coast to at least Infanta in Quezon, and westward [End Page 275] into Nueva Ecija, Bulacan, and Rizal provinces. Some speakers of this language are found in communities along the northern coast of Polillo Island (Reid, pers. comm.). There is only minor dialect variation among DGTU speaking communities. DGTU is not mutually intelligible with any other Philippine language. Thomas and Gieser (1973:65) grouped the "Dingalan Bay Dumaget group: Umiray, Diteki, tagi Kabuluwen, Depoynga, Anglat" with other Agta languages under "Northern Negrito group and Luzon various." On the basis of lexicostatistics, Walton (1979:81) subgrouped DGTU with Casiguran Dumagat (DGTC), the pair splitting off from Northern Cordilleran at 45% of shared cognates. This percentage of shared cognates is high, at least as far as DGTU is concerned, undoubtedly because of unexcluded borrowings; Headland and Headland (1974) calculate the percentage of cognates shared by DGTC and DGTU as 36 %, and this writer at 35%. McFarland (1980) also links DGTU with DGTC and the latter's close relatives East Cagayan Negrito, Paranan, and Kasiguranin. The latter are classified together as the Northern Dumagat languages, and DGTU is separated into a class by itself. "Dumagat (Umirey) is very different from the other four, and may actually belong to a different subgroup (such as Northern Cordilleran) or constitute a subgroup by itself" (66). He nevertheless states that the "Dumagat languages are part of the Northern Philippine group, within which their closest relatives are probably the Northern Cordilleran languages" (66). Reid, in contrast, holds that the closest relatives of DGTU are not to be found in the northern Philippines. Rather, "a cursory inspection of sound changes and verb morphology suggests that it is probably a Central Philippine language, related fairly remotely to the Bikol languages" (1994:41). 2. The Problem. In his 1994 article "Possible non-Austronesian lexical elements in Philippine Negrito languages," Reid argues convincingly that languages spoken by modern Negrito populations are the descendants of creolized Austronesian speech acquired by the Negritos soon after coming into contact with the invading population. If these languages, indeed, developed from creoles, then they should not appear in a family tree of true Austronesian languages. Reid acknowledges this, writing (39): "I shall continue, however, to refer to them as members of particular subfamilies of Philippine Austronesian languages...

This chapter provides a linguistic typology of about 70 Austronesian languages spoken in northern Philippines; these languages have been subgrouped into Bashiic, Northern Luzon, and Central Luzon. The chapter is organized into six sections: (i) the language scene; (2) phonology; (3) morphological profile; (4) reduplication; (5) syntax; (6) conclusion. The discussion of phonology covers vowel and consonant inventories, suprasegmental, syllable structure, phonotactics, and widespread phonological processes. These processes include vowel syncope, vowel raising, voiced stop allophony, palatalization, homorganic stopping and assibilation, gemination and degemination, lateral allophony, and lenition. In terms of morphological profile, northern Philippine languages can be characterized as synthetic-agglutinative in that they make a robust use of affixation in word building and morpheme boundaries are usually clear. However, morphemes do not always exhibit ‘one form-one meaning/function’. Moreover, reduplication is very pervasive in northern Philippine languages. Nine patterns of reduplication are observed in these languages, including Ca- reduplication, CV- reduplication, C 1 V 1 C 1 - reduplication, Caw- reduplication, C 1 V 1 C 2 -reduplication, CVː- reduplication, C 1 V 1 C 2 V 2 – reduplication, full reduplication, and lexicalized reduplication. The discussion of syntax covers word order, noun phrases and noun phrase marking systems, verbal clause structure, multipredicate constructions, compound sentences, and complex sentences. The conclusion section summaries unique typological features that distinguish northern Philippine languages from other Philippine languages and other Malayo-Polynesian languages.

BackgroundLittle information exists about the loss of all one’s teeth (edentulism) among older adults in Indonesia. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of edentulism and associated factors among older adults in Indonesia.MethodThis study examines the self-reported prevalence of edentulism and associated factors among older adults (50 years and older) in a cross-sectional national study using the Indonesia Family Life Survey IFLS-5, 2014/15. The community-based study uses a multi-stage stratified sampling design to interview and assess household members, with a household response rate of over 90%.ResultsThe overall prevalence of edentulism was 7.2, 29.8% in 80 years and older and 11.8% in those with no formal education. In adjusted Poisson regression analysis, older age, living in five major island groups and having functional disability were associated with edentulism. In addition, among men, having quit and current tobacco use and among women, having low social capital were associated with edentulism. Further, in adjusted analysis, among men, edentulism was positively associated with hypertension and negatively associated with diabetes, and among women, edentulism was associated with functional disability.ConclusionsResults suggest that overall and/or among men or women that older age, living in five major island groups, having functional disability, tobacco quitters and users and those with low social capital was associated with edentulism. The identified associated factors of edentulism may be utilized in oral health programmes targeting older adults in Indonesia.

Lymphatic Filariasis in the Philippines

The Central Luzon microgroup of Philippine languages is composed of Kapam-pangan, Sinauna, the three major dialects of Sambal, and the Ayta languages spoken in and around the Zambales Mountains in Zambales, Pampanga, and Bataan provinces. A defining phonological feature of this group is the regular /y/ reflex of Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *R. The languages and dialects in question also share similar pronoun sets and a number of lexical and other innovations. The Northern Mangyan and Bashiic languages also reflect *R as /y/. The former group probably clusters with Central Luzon, but the Bashiic languages lack substantial sharing of innovative items with Central Luzon.

Based on an exploratory research, this study highlights the role of pure rural entrepreneurship towards rural development of an inland and mountainous area of Portugal—Montemuro. Thanks to the Institute of Cultural Affairs and the energy of the rural communities, some people of the rural area have been stimulated thirty years ago to develop endogenous, entrepreneurial and innovative initiatives in the countryside. The benefits of all these rural entrepreneurial and endogenous initiatives are visible nowadays. Some villages of the rural area have more people, socio-economic dynamics were revitalized, and some job opportunities were created. Therefore, in a context of depopulation and crisis of peripheral and interior areas, our study demonstrates that rural entrepreneurship and innovation based on endogenous resources are key for the welfare of the rural society.

The littorine snail Bembicium vittatum has direct development and associated high levels of genetic subdivision. In the Houtman Abrolhos Islands, Western Australia, this species occupies a wide range of habitats. Replication of habitat types across the three major groups of islands, which are separated by water gaps of 10 to 15 km, separates patterns of genetic divergence related to gene flow from those expected from localised selection related to habitat. Allozyme frequencies at 14 loci were examined in samples of B. vittatum from 81 sites in the Abrolhos archipelago, at 72 of which descriptions of the physical and biological characteristics were made. Although shell shape and population density of B. vittatum varied with habitat, none of the allozymes showed such associations. Instead, there was spatial coherence of the allozyme variation, indicating connections among populations at two levels. On a larger scale, nearly half the interpopulation diversity was due to differences between island groups, including the association of rare alleles with island group. At a smaller scale, variation within island groups showed coherence in the form of isolation by distance, the extent and intensity of which were related to expected patterns of gene flow. This spatial coherence, independent of the mosaic of habitats, strongly favours the interpretation of patterns of genetic subdivision in B. vittatum in the Houtman Abrolhos as reflecting primarily the patterns of past and present gene flow. Contrasts with some results of an earlier study emphasise the importance of adequate sampling of sites and polymorphic loci.

The littorine snailBembicium vittatumhas direct development and associated high levels of genetic subdivision. In the Houtman Abrolhos Islands, Western Australia, this species occupies a wide range of habitats. Replication of habitat types across the three major groups of islands, which are separated by water gaps of 10 to 15 km, separates patterns of genetic divergence related to gene flow from those expected from localised selection related to habitat. Allozyme frequencies at 14 loci were examined in samples ofB. vittatumfrom 81 sites in the Abrolhos archipelago, at 72 of which descriptions of the physical and biological characteristics were made. Although shell shape and population density ofB. vittatumvaried with habitat, none of the allozymes showed such associations. Instead, there was spatial coherence of the allozyme variation, indicating connections among populations at two levels. On a larger scale, nearly half the interpopulation diversity was due to differences between island groups, including the association of rare alleles with island group. At a smaller scale, variation within island groups showed coherence in the form of isolation by distance, the extent and intensity of which were related to expected patterns of gene flow. This spatial coherence, independent of the mosaic of habitats, strongly favours the interpretation of patterns of genetic subdivision inB. vittatumin the Houtman Abrolhos as reflecting primarily the patterns of past and present gene flow. Contrasts with some results of an earlier study emphasise the importance of adequate sampling of sites and polymorphic loci.

Comment on Blust "The Resurrection of Proto-Philippines" Malcolm Ross I thank the editors of Oceanic Linguistics for inviting me to comment on Blust's paper arguing for the integrity of a Philippine subgroup within Malayo-Polynesian (MP). As Blust critiques the rejection of Proto-Philippines (PPh) in Ross (2005), l address that paper briefly first. Accepting that all Austronesian languages outside Taiwan belong to a single branch of Austronesian that has no members in Taiwan, in 2005 it was a reasonable geography-based inference that Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (PMP) might have come into being in the Batanes Islands and, if so, that the Batanic languages were a first-order offshoot of MP. This was Ross's (2005) "History 1." The alternative hypothesis, "History 2," was that the Batanic languages were clearly MP but not a first-order offshoot and reached their current location at a later stage. The paper reached no firm conclusion but commented, as Blust notes, that "there is a greater likelihood that History 1 is correct," because the Batanic languages appear very conservative. However, "the evidence for this conclusion is circumstantial, and does not have the same status as subgrouping evidence based on shared innovations." History 1 would entail that there was no Philippine subgroup, or, if there was, that the Batanic languages did not belong to it. If I had thought a Philippine subgroup had been well established, I could not have been proposed History 1. At the time of writing, the evidence for a Philippine subgroup seemed insufficient to rule out History 1. The published evidence in 2005 consisted of the lexical innovations proposed by Zorc (1986) in response to Reid's (1982) rejection of a pan-Philippine subgroup. Since that time further data and discussion have appeared in the form of a shortish discussion in Blust (2005:34–37) with a substantial appendix of lexical innovations, and, now in Blust (2020) detailed argumentation for the integrity of PPh, including discussion of individual lexical innovations and a note of the distribution of the reflexes of each, as well as a single phonological innovation. This brings me to the question: Fifteen years on, would I write something like Ross (2005) now? I would not. The new evidence strengthens the case for a Philippine grouping of some kind with Batanic as a somewhat peripheral [End Page 366] member subgroup—but it does not unequivocally support the reconstruction of PPh in the sense that a protolanguage is usually understood. Blust proposes that PPh is now supported by a single phonological innovation, the merger of PMP *z and *d. The remainder of its innovations is lexical, and in support of PPh Blust appeals to their very large number: 1,222 in appendix 1, plus the 37 in tables 2 and 3. I have paid particular attention to the latter, as Blust labels them as "the best" or "strong" replacement innovations (henceforth, "the strong innovations"), and have also looked at the distribution of all 1,259 across his microgroups. Together with supporting data on line in Blust and Trussel (ongoing), this is a wonderful collection of reconstructions. Despite this quantity of evidence, the argument for PPh seems to me to be weak in three interrelated respects. One is that the innovations are not distributed as one would expect of a proper subgroup, that is, the exclusive descendants of a single language; the second is the putative position of Philippine languages within the MP tree; and the third is the difficulty inherent in using lexical innovations. The distribution of the innovations cited in support of PPh does not attest that the Philippine languages form a proper subgroup. A proper subgroup is ideally defined by one or more innovations shared by all its members and exclusive to the languages of that group. Such innovations must satisfy two conditions, namely (1) that the innovation has not occurred independently in various members of the subgroup and (2) that it has not been borrowed across language boundaries. This defines an ideal, and one that is rarely achieved for large language groups. Sometimes an innovation is obliterated by further innovation in some members of a group. At times...

Islands represent a unique challenge in terms of electrical energy supply. A great deal of work has been carried out on this specific aspect of energy supply on different islands in the world. Unfortunately, due to island-specific energy usage profile, resources and different kinds of environmental conditions, a study of one island cannot be easily extended to other islands. The Lakshadweep group of islands in the Arabian Sea is one of the two major groups of islands in India having diesel generators (DGs) as the main source of electricity. Considering the remoteness of the island and the polluting nature of existing DGs, it is desirable to adopt a strategy to utilise the available potential of non-polluting renewable energy sources (RESs) for these ecologically sensitive islands. A multi-objective optimisation methodology is applied in Kavaratti Island, Lakshadweep, where various RESs exist and can be exploited to generate electrical energy and to mitigate environmental pollution. A specific mathematical model is developed with two objective functions, namely cost and environmental pollution that work reversibly. Application of the proposed mathematical tool leads to a Pareto set, satisfying the multiplicity of criteria, namely environmental pollution, energy demand, per-unit generation cost and resource constraints.

Islands represent a unique challenge in terms of energy supply. A great deal of work has been carried out in this specific aspect of energy supply on different islands in the world. Unfortunately due to island specific energy use profile, resources and different kind of environmental conditions, study of one island cannot be easily applied to other islands. The Lakshadweep group of islands in Arabian Sea is one of the two major groups of Islands in India having Diesel generators as the main source of electricity. Considering the remoteness of the Island and polluting nature of existing Diesel generators, it is desirable to adopt a strategy to utilize available potential of non-polluting renewable energy sources for these ecologically sensitive Islands. A multi objective optimization methodology is applied on the Kavaratti Island of Lakshadweep Islands group, where various renewable energy sources exists and could be exploited to satisfy electrical energy need along with environmental pollution mitigation. Specific mathematical model is developed with two objective functions that work reversibly. Application of specific mathematical tools will lead to a set of energy solutions called pareto set, which satisfy the multiplicity of criteria, namely environmental pollution, Energy demand, cost and resource constraints.

The Lakshadweep group of islands in Arabian Sea is one of the two major groups of islands in India. In these islands the main source of electricity is diesel generators, the diesel being transported from the main land to produce over 9 MW of electricity. Considering the remoteness of the island and the polluting nature of the existing plants, it is desirable to adopt a strategy to utilize available potential of non-polluting renewable energy sources for these ecologically sensitive islands. A techno economic and environmental analysis for grid interactive solar photovoltaic power system of Union Territory of Lakshadweep islands is presented. This paper also examines the pollution aspect of power generation through Diesel Generator set and highlights the environmental benefits in using solar energy. Experiences of grid interactive solar photovoltaic power system installed recently in different islands are discussed and suggestions have been made for improving its efficiency and performance. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Philippine Archipelago, composed of 7,100 islands and more than 70 ethno-linguistic groups, is divided into 15 regions on the basis of geographical, cultural, and political variations. Each region is classified under three major island groups: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The National Capital Region (NCR) is situated south of Luzon, and its population genetic database has been reported (1). However, because the NCR is geographically separated by sea from the rest of the island groups, and because each island group has its own distinct cultural identity, there is a need to study and compare the genetic composition of other regional populations to that of NCR. The present study reports population data at eight short tandem repeat (STR) loci, namely HUMvWA, HUMCSF1PO, HUMTH01, HUMTPOX, HUMF13A01, HUMFES/ FPS, HUMFOLP23, and D8S306 for the Visayas. Visayas refers to the central group of islands in the Philippine Archipelago, where the major language spoken is the Visaya or Bisaya, instead of the more common Filipino (Tagalog) language. It is composed of three political regions, namely, Region VI, VII, and VIII. Blood samples were collected in Region VI (Aklan, Iloilo, n = 114), Region VII (Cebu, n = 140), and Region VIII (Leyte, n = 92) and blotted on FITZCO FTA™ cards. Genomic DNA was purified according to manufacturer's instructions (Flinder's Technology, Massachusetts). PCR amplification was performed as described previously (1). Amplified products were detected with the ALFExpress sequencer and using ALFwin and Allelelinks software (Pharmacia Biotech) using automated flourescence technology. Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (HWE) and linkage equilibrium (LE) were checked by the Exact Test using the DNA View software (2). Homogeneity tests were performed using Popgene ver 1.32 (3).

This cross-sectional, prospective surveillance study sought to determine the prevalence of novel respiratory viruses among domestic ducks in Central Luzon that are known to have frequent contact with wild avian species. Such contact may lead to novel virus spillover events that may harm domestic poultry as well as humans. From March 2019 to January 2020, cross-sectional and prospective surveillance for viruses among domestic ducks (Anas luzonica) was conducted by periodically collecting oropharyngeal swabs from ducks on 54 farms across three municipalities within Central Luzon (Region III). A flock of 30 sentinel domestic ducks was also sampled four times after being confined in the Candaba swamp. The resultant 1740 swab samples were pooled (5 samples/pool, 348 pools) by site and screened with molecular assays for respiratory viruses from multiple viral families. Two farms yielded samples positive for avian influenza virus in Candaba, where adolescent ducks are known to freely mix with wild birds as they graze in rice fields. Overall, the prevalence of avian influenza virus was 2.3% (8/348 pools). Sequencing revealed three pools with highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N6, one with low pathogenicity H5N8, and one with H5 with an unspecified neuraminidase. All the pooled specimens tested were negative for influenza C, adenoviruses, coronaviruses and enteroviruses. Although this study had several limitations, it found supportive evidence that domestic ducks are acquiring avian influenza viruses from wild bird species. These findings underscore recommendations that duck farmers should seek to prevent domestic ducks from mixing with wild avian species.

The preceding chapter having discussed barriers between Bismarck islands, we devote this chapter to barriers between Solomon islands. At Pleistocene times of low sea level, the Solomons consisted of four main islands or island groups, plus several, much smaller, isolated islands (fig. 1.3). The four main groups were 1) the Bukida group, consisting of the chain from Buka to Florida and Guadalcanal, which are the modern fragments of the Pleistocene island Greater Bukida; 2) the New Georgia group (from Vella Lavella to Gatukai), consisting of modern fragments of the three nearby Pleistocene islands Greater Vellonga, Greater Gatumbangra, and Greater Rendipari, plus Gizo and Simbo; 3) Malaita; and 4) San Cristobal. While all four of these groups or islands share most species and many widespread Solomon endemics, they differ from each other by local endemism and differences in species composition. This is illustrated by table 31.1, which shows how geographic borders between allospecies, mega subspecies, and distributional gaps for seven species that are geographically highly variable coincide with the division of the Solomons into these four major island groups.