Constraining impact flux during the late heavy bombardment with Chang'e-6 samples.

The discovery of heavily cratered surfaces on Ganymede and Callisto by Voyager 1 shows that like the inner Solar System, a period of heavy bombardment also occurred in the outer Solar System. Comparisons among the crater size/density curves of Ganymede, Callisto and the terrestrial planets show several striking features. The overall crater density of the most heavily cratered terrain on Ganymede is down by a factor of about 3 compared to Callisto, and when allowance is made for the difference in crater production rate due to the influence of Jupiter's gravity field it is down by a factor of nearly 6. This indicates that the oldest regions of Ganymede began recording the observed crater population at a later time than Callisto, and therefore Ganymede either experienced a large‐scale (perhaps global) diameter‐independent resurfacing event or simply developed a rigid crust capable of retaining craters later than Callisto. In either case, this process took place during the period of late heavy bombardment. Based on earlier studies of the terrestrial‐planets' cratering record, neither Ganymede nor Callisto is saturated with craters. Compared to Callisto, a diameter‐dependent loss of craters in the size range 10–40 km occurs on the grooved terrain of Ganymede and probably results from obliteration of small craters due to the formation of new ice. A similar but less severe loss also occurs on Ganymede's heavily cratered terrain and may be due to an earlier period of ice formation and/or the formation of arcuate troughs in this terrain. Seven different crater curves, in the diameter range of about 40–130 km, representing vastly different crater densities, different surface ages, different terrain types, and even different satellites all possess nearly the same distribution function. This together with other observational evidence strongly suggests that at least in this diameter range the curve basically represents its production function which is completely different from that on the terrestrial planets. This indicates that the population of bodies responsible for the period of late heavy bombardment in the inner Solar System was very different from that responsible for the late heavy bombardment in the outer Solar System. We can only speculate at this early stage that Ganymede and Callisto may principally record a population of bodies that never penetrated the inner Solar System in numbers great enough to leave a recognizable signature.

The 40Ar/39Ar technique is a powerful geochronological method derived from the K/Ar technique that can help to unravel the evolution of the solar system. The 40Ar/39Ar system can not only record the timing of volcanic and metamorphic processes on asteroids and planets, it finds domain of predilection in dating impact events throughout the solar system. The 40Ar/39Ar method is a robust analytical technique when the events to be dated are well understood and data are not over interpreted. The power of the 40Ar/39Ar technique resides in the ability to check the validity of age data internally by statistical means and multiple lines of evidence, and hence to evaluate when Ar age data are unreliable. Yet, too many ‘ages’ reported in the literature are still based on over-interpretation of perturbed age spectra. This review is by no means exhaustive and is centred on the most recent applications of the 40Ar/39Ar technique applied to planetary material, not the history of the planetary bodies themselves, or a historical review of the development of the argon dating technique. This paper presents selected case-study examples on terrestrial impact structures, the Moon and meteorites with ages recalculated using the latest decay constants. Currently, only 21 terrestrial impact structures are precisely and accurately dated, and the only proven age concordance is between the Chixculub impact and the Cretaceous/Paleogene mass extinction. 40Ar/39Ar dating of volcanic events on the Moon suggests that volcanism was concentrated between 3.8 and 3.1 Ga. The study of lunar volcanism would also benefit from dating of volcanic spherules for which only few data are available. Rigorous filtering of the 40Ar/39Ar age database of lunar melt breccias yielded concordant ages with high precision for two major basins of the Moon, but more precise age data would be needed to further test and validate the Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB) hypothesis. 40Ar/39Ar dating of lunar impact spherules shows an increase of ages <400 Ma suggesting a recent increase in the impact flux. The impact history of the LL parent body (bodies?) has yet to be well constrained but may mimic the LHB observed on the Moon, which would indicate that the LL parent body was quite large. Basaltic meteorites (HEDs) show an 40Ar/39Ar age range between 4.1 and 3.4 Ga, suggesting a diffuse LHB event; however, the spread of apparent ages may be a data-interpretation artefact, and the LHB parent body (bodies?) might have experienced a bombardment closer to the duration of the LHB age range than expected. Martian meteorites contain clues on Mars atmospheric and mantle argon compositions.

The Earth–Moon system during the late heavy bombardment period – Geochemical support for impacts dominated by comets

Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, p. 1141 (2009)

Context. The Nice model predicts that the trans-planetary planetesimal disk made a large or even dominant contribution to the cratering in the inner solar system during the late heavy bombardment (LHB). In the presence of evidence that lunar craters and mare basins may be mainly of asteroidal origin, there is a dilemma of the missing comets that is not yet resolved.Aims. We aim to revisit the problem of cometary impact rates on the Moon and the terrestrial planets during the LHB with a flexible model, allowing us to study the influences of physical destruction of comets, the mass of the primordial disk, and the distribution of this mass over the entire size range.Methods. We performed a Monte Carlo study of the dynamics of the cometary LHB projectiles and derive the impact rates by calculating individual collision probabilities for a huge sample of projectile orbits. We used Minimum Orbit Intersection Distances (MOIDs) according to a new scheme introduced here. Different calculations were performed using different models for the physical evolution of comet nuclei and for the properties of the primordial, trans-planetary disk.Results. Based on the capture probability of Jupiter Trojans, we find a best fit radius of the largest LHB comet impacting the Moon for a low-mass primordial disk. For this disk mass, the LHB cratering of the Moon, Mercury and Mars were dominated by asteroids. However, some smaller lunar maria were likely preceded by comet impacts. The volatile delivery to the Earth and Mars by LHB comets was much less than their water inventories.Conclusions. There is no excessive cometary cratering, if the LHB was caused by a late planetary instability in the Nice Model. The Earth and Mars obtained their water very early in their histories. The Noachian water flows on Mars cannot be attributed to the arrival of LHB-related H2 O or CO2 .

Did Saturn's rings form during the Late Heavy Bombardment?

Could the Lunar “Late Heavy Bombardment” Have Been Triggered by the Formation of Uranus and Neptune?

Excavation and melting of the Hadean continental crust by Late Heavy Bombardment

&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;The Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB) and other late accretion impactor scenarios are often invoked as habitability constraints on the Hadean/Eoarchean Earth. These hypotheses either describe an &amp;amp;#8220;impact frustration&amp;amp;#8221; where life would not arise until high impact fluxes abated, or &amp;amp;#8220;impact bottlenecks&amp;amp;#8221; with Bacteria and Archaea representing surviving lineages that subsequently diversified. Phylogenomics studies using relaxed molecular clocks have frequently used these early impact fluxes, especially the LHB, as older-bound constraints on extant life&amp;amp;#8217;s early diversification. However, the intensity, timing, and sterilization potential of these scenarios is poorly constrained, and lacks consensus. We propose inverting this hypothesis testing, evaluating late accretion impact hypotheses using molecular clocks that do not presuppose impact frustration or bottlenecks as constraints. However, in the absence of these constraints, previous studies lack the precision to discriminate between these hypotheses. Our recently developed molecular clock approach, using horizontal gene transfers as &amp;amp;#8220;cross cutting events&amp;amp;#8221; between lineages, overcomes this limitation, and provides sufficient precision to test the proposed biological impact of specific planetary hypotheses such as the LHB. &amp;amp;#160; Using this methodology, we show that major bacterial groups likely diversified between 3.75 and 3.55 Ga, with the last common ancestor of extant Bacteria likely existing shortly after 3.8 Ga. &amp;amp;#160;These ages are consistent with the LHB impact bottleneck hypothesis, wherein bacteria and archaea represent survivors of early Archean cataclysms that extinguished most primordial biodiversity ~3.9 Ga. Future work extending this methodology to Archaea can potentially provide an independent test of the impact bottleneck hypothesis.&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;

The 'Late Heavy Bombardment' was a phase in the impact history of the Moon that occurred 3.8 4.0 Gyr ago, when the lunar basins with known dates were formed. But no record of this event has yet been reported from the few surviving rocks of this age on the Earth. Here we report tungsten isotope anomalies, based on the (182)Hf (182)W system (half-life of 9 Myr), in metamorphosed sedimentary rocks from the 3.7 3.8-Gyr-old Isua greenstone belt of West Greenland and closely related rocks from northern Labrador, Canada. As it is difficult to conceive of a mechanism by which tungsten isotope heterogeneities could have been preserved in the Earth's dynamic crust mantle environment from a time when short-lived (182)Hf was still present, we conclude that the metamorphosed sediments contain a component derived from meteorites.

Major impact events have shaped the Earth as we know it. The Late Heavy Bombardment is of particular interest because it immediately precedes the first evidence of life. The reentry of impact ejecta creates numerous chemical by‐products, including biotic precursors such as HCN. This work examines the production of HCN during the Late Heavy Bombardment in more detail. We stochastically simulate the range of impacts on the early Earth and use models developed from existing studies to predict the corresponding ejecta properties. Using multiphase flow methods and finite‐rate equilibrium chemistry, we then find the HCN production due to the resulting atmospheric heating. We use Direct Simulation Monte Carlo to develop a correction factor to account for increased yields due to thermochemical nonequilibrium. We then model 1‐D atmospheric turbulent diffusion to find the time accurate transport of HCN to lower altitudes and ultimately surface water. Existing works estimate the necessary HCN molarity threshold to promote polymerization that is 0.01 M. For a mixing depth of 100 m, we find that the Late Heavy Bombardment will produce at least one impact event above this threshold with probability 24.1% for an oxidized atmosphere and 56.3% for a partially reduced atmosphere. For a mixing depth of 10 m, the probability is 79.5% for an oxidized atmosphere and 96.9% for a partially reduced atmosphere. Therefore, Late Heavy Bombardment impact ejecta is likely an HCN source sufficient for polymerization in shallow bodies of water, particularly if the atmosphere were in a partially reduced state.

A 'late veneer' of meteoritic material, added after Earth's core had formed, may be the source of our noble metals. Its absence from some parts of Earth's mantle will now force a rethink about this late accretion. See Letter p.195 It has long been speculated that a 'late heavy bombardment' of Earth by meteoritic material replenished the mantle's budget of siderophile (iron-loving) elements, such as tungsten, that were largely lost to the core during its segregation. However, evidence for this 'late veneer' remains indirect, and its influence has been much debated. Matthias Willbold and colleagues present high-precision tungsten isotope analyses of ancient Greenland rocks and show that they have significantly higher 182W/184W ratios than modern terrestrial samples. This finding is in good agreement with the expected influence of a meteoritic late heavy bombardment. They speculate that both the tungsten isotope data and the observed decrease in 142Nd/144Nd neodymium ratios can be explained if late meteorite bombardment triggered the onset of the current style of mantle convection.

Asteroid 4 Vesta: Dynamical and collisional evolution during the Late Heavy Bombardment

Evolution of Titan’s atmosphere during the Late Heavy Bombardment

In the Nice model, the late heavy bombardment (LHB) is related to an orbital instability of giant planets which causes a fast dynamical dispersion of a trans-Neptunian cometary disk. We study effects produced by these hypothetical cometary projectiles on main belt asteroids. In particular, we want to check whether the observed collisional families provide a lower or an upper limit for the cometary flux during the LHB. We present an updated list of observed asteroid families as identified in the space of synthetic proper elements by the hierarchical clustering method, colour data, albedo data and dynamical considerations and we estimate their physical parameters. We selected 12 families which may be related to the LHB according to their dynamical ages. We then used collisional models and N-body orbital simulations to gain insight into the long-term dynamical evolution of synthetic LHB families over 4 Gyr. We account for the mutual collisions between comets, main belt asteroids, and family members, the physical disruptions of comets, the Yarkovsky/YORP drift in semimajor axis, chaotic diffusion in eccentricity/inclination, or possible perturbations by the giant-planet migration. Assuming a “standard” size-frequency distribution of primordial comets, we predict the number of families with parent-body sizes DPB ≥ 200 km – created during the LHB and subsequent ≃4 Gyr of collisional evolution – which seems consistent with observations. However, more than 100 asteroid families with DPB ≥ 100 km should be created at the same time which are not observed. This discrepancy can be nevertheless explained by the following processes: i) asteroid families are efficiently destroyed by comminution (via collisional cascade), ii) disruptions of comets below some critical perihelion distance (q ≲ 1.5 AU) are common. Given the freedom in the cometary-disruption law, we cannot provide stringent limits on the cometary flux, but we can conclude that the observed distribution of asteroid families does not contradict with a cometary LHB.