Conserving Biodiversity and Plant Genetic Resources: The Hellenic Legal Framework

ABSTRACT: Biotechnology, agriculture, and pharmaceuticals have collectively increased the global need for biological and genetic resources. This underscores the necessity of setting up robust governance systems that ensure fair access and sustainable resource utilisation. This study examines the complex domain of managing biological and genetic resources. It emphasises access, benefit-sharing (ABS), and protective measures within international, regional, and national legislation. This study utilises the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Nagoya Protocol as foundational elements to examine the interconnections among environmental law, intellectual property rights, and indigenous knowledge systems. The study examines the complex challenges associated with the ownership and management of genetic resources, particularly in impoverished nations rich in biodiversity. This examines how contemporary legal systems either uphold or undermine the rights of local and indigenous populations, whose traditional knowledge is often essential for the identification and use of these resources. There is considerable discourse around the perils of biopiracy and the appropriation of genetic material, alongside the necessity for transparent, fair, and legally enforceable Access and Benefit-Sharing agreements. The study evaluates the efficacy of the selected authority and the existing protection mechanism. We analyse the function of intellectual property rights, particularly patent systems, and plant variety protection, and assess their compatibility with biodiversity preservation and fair benefit-sharing. The paper examines the increasing significance of digital sequencing data for genetic resources and its complicating effect on the application of established regulations. This paper advocates for a governance model that is more interconnected, inclusive, and equitable, aiming to integrate domestic policies with international obligations while respecting the rights and contributions of indigenous peoples. It ensures compliance with regulations, safeguards biodiversity, and promotes equitable sharing of benefits derived from genetic resources through the establishment of new laws and policies. In conclusion, the study contributes to the broader dialogue on global equality, environmental justice, and sustainable development by elucidating the legal and ethical frameworks for the use and conservation of biological and genetic resources.

A preparatory action on the conservation and sustainable use of EU plant and animal genetic resources in agriculture and forestry was carried over a period of two years (2014-2016). Evidence was gathered through a variety of means in the context of the study. These included a mapping exercise of current activities and the stakeholders involved, a review of existing literature, over three hundred interviews with stakeholders and competent authorities, twenty-one case studies of good practices, and seven thematic workshops covering methodological issues. The findings of the study were shared with stakeholders and competent authorities across the EU28 during a conference which took place at the end of the preparatory action. The analysis highlighted the need to develop an agro-biodiversity strategy towards the conservation and sustainable use of genetic diversity in the EU, while considering issues specific to each of the four domains of the study: plant genetic resources, animal genetic resources, forestry genetic resources; and microbial and invertebrate genetic resources. Significant efforts have to be made by all stakeholders to secure an optimal conservation of genetic resources in the EU, and use these resources in a sustainable way in agriculture and forestry. This can be achieved through e.g. supporting partnerships and cooperation between stakeholders at all levels in the supply chain.

The purpose of the article is to analyze the international and national legislation in the field of crime prevention by the probation authorities, and to determine the directions of improvement of the national legislation governing the institute in Ukraine. In order to achieve this goal, the following tasks have been accomplished in the article: Different approaches to understanding the concept of «probation» are considered; investigated national and international legislation in the field of prevention of criminal offenses by probation authorities in Ukraine; probation issues of probation prevention were investigated; on the basis of the conducted research, proposals and recommendations on improvement of measures for prevention of criminal offenses by the probation authorities in Ukraine by amendments to the national legislation were provided. Methodology. In the course of the research, the dialectical method of scientific knowledge of social and legal phenomena in their contradictions, development and changes was used, which makes it possible to objectively evaluate the level, effectiveness and analysis of international and national legislation in the field of prevention of criminal offenses by probation authorities, as well as gaps in the system, Formal-logical method, by which the elements of the legal mechanism of preventing criminal offenses by probation authorities are revealed. The comparative legal method is used in the analysis of current legislation and international regulations; formal logic (analysis and synthesis, hypothesis) – in determining the main directions of scientific work and the main problematic issues. The theoretical basis of this publication was the work of domestic and foreign scientists on the aspects of prevention of criminal offenses by probation authorities. The scientific novelty of the publication is the need to conduct a thorough analysis of the applicable international and national legislation in the field of prevention of criminal offenses by probation authorities, as well as to send proposals and recommendations, to revise individual domestic rules in this field and bring them into conformity with the rules of international conventions. Conclusions. Based on the results of the study, conclusions were drawn about the need to address staffing issues, including the involvement of qualified psychologists in working with prisoners, and with minors, teachers. Ensure proper implementation of the rules that provide social assistance to prisoners: providing housing and work, amending the Law of Ukraine «On Probation» and the Law of Ukraine «On the social adaptation of persons serving or serving sentences in the form of restraint of liberty or imprisonment for a limited period». Keywords. probation; penitentiary system; international experience; crime prevention; restorative justice; expedited adaptation; psycho-corrective program; social adaptation; probation services; volunteer.

The intensification of agriculture has led to remarkable changes in the utilization of agricultural genetic resources and many previously common breeds and varieties have become rare or even endangered (FAO 2007, 2010, Drucker, Gomez & Anderson 2001). In Finland, Eastern and Northern Finncattle, the Kainuu Grey Sheep and the Åland Sheep are endangered according to the FAO classification (FAO 2003) and, for example, majority of the old Finnish crop varieties and Finnish landrace pig are already extinct. Making informed decisions on the appropriate focus and extent of conservation of agricultural genetic resources requires information on both the costs and benefits of conservation. Economic analyses involving the valuation of conservation benefits can guide resource allocation of various types of genetic resources and conservation methods (Artuso 1998). The value of genetic resources is not typically revealed by markets, as they are not directly traded in the markets or the prices of agricultural products do not completely indicate their value (Oldfield 1989, Brown 1990, Drucker et al. 2001). Although the importance of economic analyses has been recognized, the literature on the monetary value of genetic resources in agriculture is relatively limited (see e.g. Evenson et al. 1998 and Rege and Gibson 2003, Ahtiainen & Pouta 2011). Currently the conservation policy of farm agricultural genetic resources in Finland is based on international agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) and the Global Plan of Action for Animal Genetic resources (FAO 2007). National genetic resource programs were initiated for plants in 2003 and for farm animals in 2005 to strengthen the conservation of genetic resources in Finland. Although there has been some progress in the implementation of the programs, they have also suffered from shortage of funds and lack of political interest in conservation. To re-evaluate the conservation policy, there is a need to use valuation methods capable of estimating also the non-use value components of genetic resources, i.e. stated preference methods. The choice experiment (CE) method has been found suitable to valuing genetic resources due to its flexibility and ability to value the traits of breeds or varieties and their attributes. Choice experiment makes it possible to value benefits of both plant genetic resources (PGR) and animal genetic resources (AnGR). The terms refer to all cultivated plant species and varieties, as well as all animal species and breeds that are of interest in terms of food and agricultural production. The CE method can also be used to evaluate the means of conservation in situ (live animals and plants) and ex situ (as seeds, cryopreserved embryos and other genetic material). Previous choice experiments have focused on valuing breeds or varieties and their attributes, especially on attributes that are related to the use of the breed or variety in agriculture (Birol et al. 2006, Ouma et al. 2007). In this study we present the results of a choice experiment valuing the benefits of a genetic resource conservation program in Finland. We test the effect of in situ and ex situ conservation on citizen choices between programs. We also analyse whether the plant varieties and animal breeds are perceived equally valuable by citizen. As the conservation of agricultural genetic resources (AgGR) cannot be expected to be equally valuable to all citizens, we analyse the existence of citizen segments that value differently the conservation of genetic resources. We can assume that AgGR is a rather unknown good for some of the respondents of the valuation survey. However, in valuation surveys respondents are assumed to make “informed” choices when responding to value elicitation questions (e.g. Blomquist &Whitehead 1998). Therefore, we offered an opportunity for respondents to obtain further information on AgGR. In our case, the internet-based survey allowed us also to measure how much time respondents took in reading the information and responding to questions. Furthermore, we also measured response certainty and tested the effects of uncertainty and information as reasons for heterogeneity.

Chapter 15 - Regulations and legislations on processed cheese

Genetic resources are of prime historical and practical significance for survival of human beings, to generate revenue and support a balanced ecosystem. Several aspects of these genetic resources further depend on the conservation strategies for balancing the ecosystem. Conserving resources is of prime importance to safeguard mankind against growing demand of food and stabilizing the ecosystem. Plant genetic resources (PGR) refer to the heritable material contained within and among plant species of present and potential value. In recent past, the diversity in plant genetic resources found in wild and weedy cultivars, and landraces have been reported to save animal and plant population from diseases, pests, and environmental changes. However, the loss of genetic resources at alarming rates due to anthropogenic pressure, climate change, pollution explosion, genetic erosion, gross mismanagement of resources, and population growth is the immediate topic of debate. Hence, there is a need for conservation and sustainable utilization of genetic resources. Against this backdrop, it is important to generate the database to get deep insight into the approaches for conservation purpose. The important conservation methods employed for genetic resources include in situ and ex situ conservation. In-depth survey, collection, and documentation are of principal importance to have a realistic view on genetic resource diversity. International, national, and individual appreciation value of these resources would facilitate their sustainable utilization. Dire need of creating avenues for genetic resources mandates ease of excess, and effective policies may be enacted for their protection particularly in biodiversity hotspots and in regions of high endemism. Present chapter highlights various approaches for conservation of genetic resources as well as the lacunae that are desirable to combat the future generation against high demand of eco-stability and food insecurity.

The paper compares horticultural genetic resources collections with genetic resources collections at large, assesses their characteristics, strengths and weaknesses with the aim of identifying specific management requirements to conserve horticultural crop germplasm more efficiently and effectively. To facilitate such a comparison, a historical review of plant genetic resources (PGR) conservation efforts has been made with special reference to the period when conservation approaches and procedures were developed and a global network of base collections was established. A brief historical overview of the conceptual and technical developments of utilizing germplasm is presented. As the use of germplasm is closely related to PGR availability, the paper provides a brief description of the major PGR policy and legal issues, mainly those that impact on access and benefit sharing arrangements. A detailed analysis of the collecting efforts of horticultural crops by the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) as well as of the existing major global horticultural germplasm collections is presented, with a special focus on vegetable crops and The World Vegetable Center (AVRDC). Finally, generic biological aspects and peculiarities of horticultural genetic resources are analyzed in the context of current germplasm management procedures. Genetic diversity considerations of horticultural crops, their frequently localized distribution, current breeding practices and other aspects are being analyzed to see how germplasm collection management practices can be improved. Based on these analyses and reviews, general recommendations have been made and conclusions have been drawn for a more effective and efficient global conservation approach and organization. INTRODUCTION Horticultural crops form an important component of the food basket for human beings. Besides calories, they provide proteins, vitamins and other essential substances. Horticultural crops are very diverse, including vegetables, fruit crops, spices, ornamentals, etc. and they vary greatly from one part of the world to another. At the same time a number of major global horticultural crops have been developed and they are more comparable with the major agricultural crops. Due to the great variation, their predominantly localized importance, the important role of people in developing many of the crops, the variable degree of their improvement, the big differences between crops in their economic importance, and significant biological differences between the crops as well as other aspects that characterize horticultural crops, the challenges to conserve this wealth of genetic resources in a rational manner is a real challenge. This paper hopes to contribute to a more rational and effective conservation approach by reviewing the historical developments of plant genetic resources (PGR) conservation and use, assessing the collecting and conservation activities of horticultural species, critically analyzing the routine genetic resources management activities for horticultural crops, reviewing briefly the prevailing political aspects, before drawing conclusions and making some recommendations. Proc. XXVII IHC-S1 Plant Gen. Resources Ed.-in-Chief: K.E. Hummer Acta Hort. 760, ISHS 2007 34 A Historical Review of PGR Conservation It was only in the 1920s that the first germplasm collections were established, largely driven by breeding efforts and interest and, consequently, resulting in breeding rather than genetic resources collections. Examples of such collections are those at the Vavilov Research Institute VIR at St. Petersburg, Russia; ARS of USDA, USA; the Crop Research Institute IPK in Gatersleben, Germany and others (Scarascia-Mugnozza and Perrino, 2002). The establishment of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) in the early 1960s contributed significantly to the Green Revolution through the successful global breeding efforts on the major food crops. The dramatic losses of landraces of these major crops were largely caused by the introduction of high yielding varieties (HYVs) and triggered the systematic collecting of threatened PGR. These collecting efforts were coordinated by the newly founded International Board for Plant Genetic Resources in 1974 and resulted in the establishment of large germplasm collections, especially in the International Agricultural Research centres (IARCs) of the CGIAR. During the 1960s and 1970s there was a strong focus on major food crops, in particular those that produce orthodox seeds like cereals and pulses, and consequently the proposed conservation procedures as well as the research were biased towards these crops. Only during the 1980s was more attention given to “difficult” species, i.e. those that produce recalcitrant or no seeds or species that are vegetatively propagated, and in vitro conservation approaches, including cryopreservation were developed. Since 1977 the so-called Registry of Base Collections was formed and coordinated by IBPGR to conserve the germplasm that was collected with the involvement of IBPGR (Tao et al., 1989). The Registry consists of 49 selected national and international genebanks and it covers approximately 250 genera. Of the 49 institutes, 21 signed agreements with IBPGR for the long-term conservation of vegetable base collections, covering a total of 15 genera. Since the mid 1980s FAO established the International Network of Ex Situ Germplasm Collections as part of the Global System that was formed as an important component of the International Undertaking. This Network still exists and the germplasm maintained consists predominantly of material that is maintained by the CGIAR genebanks. In 1971 the World Vegetable Center AVRDC was established with one of its objectives being to conserve and use genetic resources of its mandate crops (see below). The Centre is loosely associated with CGIAR and only recently developed its new global strategy. During the late 1980s more people oriented approaches were developed and applied in the conservation efforts and broadened governance over the genetic resources programmes was applied which greatly facilitated the inclusion of in situ and on-farm conservation activities as part of national PGR programmes. As part of the responsibilities entrusted to FAO by the Convention on Biological Diversity to resolve the legal status of existing collections and the concept of Farmers’ Rights, FAO and the CGIAR Centres concluded agreements in 1994 that defined the legal status of the collections managed by the IARCs. Through these agreements the designated germplasm accessions were formally placed in the international public domain and the responsibilities of the IARCs defined. More recently, the International Coconut Genetic Resources Network (COGENT) and the Centro Agronomico Tropical de Investigacion y Ensenanza (CATIE) concluded similar agreements with FAO. World-wide, approximately 1500 genebanks and germplasm collections have been established over the past 40 years or so and some general observations can be made about them: o Usually, there are poor links between genebanks and users; o Typically, many species are maintained in (national) genebanks; o Neglected and underutilized species (NUS) and of crop wild relatives (CWRs) are poorly represented in the collections and their within-species genetic diversity (GD) is rather limited; o In general, one can observe limited and decreasing budgets, sometimes due to underutilization of the conserved germplasm;

For 100s of years, livestock producers have employed various types of selection to alter livestock populations. Current selection strategies are little different, except our technologies for selection have become more powerful. Genetic resources at the breed level have been in and out of favour over time. These resources are the raw materials used to manipulate populations, and therefore, they are critical to the past and future success of the livestock sector. With increasing ability to rapidly change genetic composition of livestock populations, the conservation of these genetic resources becomes more critical. Globally, awareness of the need to steward genetic resources has increased. A growing number of countries have embarked on large scale conservation efforts by using in situ, ex situ (gene banking), or both approaches. Gene banking efforts have substantially increased and data suggest that gene banks are successfully capturing genetic diversity for research or industry use. It is also noteworthy that both industry and the research community are utilizing gene bank holdings. As pressures grow to meet consumer demands and potential changes in production systems, the linkage between selection goals and genetic conservation will increase as a mechanism to facilitate continued livestock sector development.

The purpose of the article consists in the analysis of the norms of national and international legislation for the elimination of the discrepancies in the legal understanding of the definitions in the field of alternative energy, that is definition and scientific and theoretical substantiation of the notions «alternative sources of energy», «non-conventional sources of energy» and «renewable sources of energy», which will serve for the elimination of terminological discrepancies in national legislation, and will become a basis for uniform practical use of the latter in the field of alternative energy. Urgency of the research is conditioned by the reorientation of world energy sector in the direction of the substitution of conventional fuel sources for those alternative. Since global warming and increasing of the level of anthropogenic emissions as a result of human activity is one of the biggest ecological problems of the universe, international community, together with ecologists and climatologists of all the world are involved in the development and implementation of highly efficient international strategies, which are directed at the decrease of harmful impact of anthropogenic emissions on surrounding natural environment and human health. In order to prevent the climate change and to mitigate global warming the scientists of the entire world proposed a wide range of variants for the mitigation of climate changes of Earth. Among which the key place belongs to alternative and renewable energy sources, which have been identified as the main strategically successful directions of reducing anthropogenic emissions into the natural environment. Today, we can see a trend towards a reorientation of the global energy sector to more environmentally friendly, alternative and renewable energy sources and a departure from traditional fossil energy resources. At the same time, unambiguous interpretation and understanding of the conceptual and terminological apparatus is an important condition for the development and practical use of knowledge. Therefore, it is important to delineate the clear boundaries of the technologies included in the concepts of alternative and renewable sources of energy, as there are differences in the use of these concepts, both in national legislation and between national and international legislation. The article analyzes and systematizes the knowledge as to the categorial instrument in the field of alternative energy and proposes the definition of renewable and alternative energy sources in accordance with the rules of construction of conceptual and terminological apparatus taking into account international experience in this field. The proposed wording of these concepts serves to eliminate terminological inaccuracies in national legislation, and will address the gaps between national and international legislation in the field of application of the categorial instrument in the field of alternative energy.

A review of shark conservation and management legal frameworks in the Philippines

The article is dedicated to a comprehensive analysis of the national legal frameworks of repatriation in Ukraine. It examines the essence of the concept of "repatriation" within the context of international and national legislation, explores the regulatory framework governing the processes of returning Ukrainian citizens to their homeland, and analyzes key legislative acts related to the legal status of repatriates, including the Constitution of Ukraine, the Law of Ukraine "On Foreign Ukrainians," the Law of Ukraine "On Immigration," and other legal documents. Special attention is paid to the challenges of implementing the right to repatriation amid military conflict and the forced displacement of a significant portion of the population abroad. The study identifies legal mechanisms to facilitate the return and reintegration of Ukrainian citizens residing abroad, including systems of state guarantees, social security, and employment for repatriates. It analyzes the specifics of applying legal norms on repatriation to various categories of individuals: those deported on ethnic grounds, labor migrants, and refugees fleeing war. The interaction between national legislation and international legal standards in the field of repatriation and the protection of repatriates’ rights is also highlighted. Based on an analysis of the legal framework and its practical application, the study identifies gaps in the legislative regulation of repatriation processes and proposes ways to improve Ukraine’s legal mechanisms for repatriation. The necessity of developing and adopting a special law that comprehensively regulates the repatriation of Ukrainian citizens is justified, taking into account modern challenges caused by mass migration resulting from military conflict. Practical recommendations are formulated to enhance the legal framework for repatriation processes and strengthen the protection of repatriates’ rights within the context of Ukraine’s new migration policy. Keywords: repatriation, national legislation, legal status of repatriates, migration policy, migrants’ rights, forced migration, return of citizens.

The available national and international plant genetic resources related agreements recognize the sovereignty over their genetic resources. The onus to conserve (using both ex situ and in situ approaches) and use them rests with countries and current agreements stress the importance of equitable sharing of these resources and technologies related to their utilization. This chapter focuses on the in situ conservation approach. Here we deal with the definition of and conceptual basis for in situ and on-farm conservation, role of in situ conservation, factors that shape crop genetic diversity, need for in situ conservation and its role in overall efforts to conserve plant genetic resources, its relevance at local and global levels, impact of climate change on in situ conservation programmes and appropriate needs and opportunities for implementing community driven in situ conservation programme. Conserving crop genetic diversity is important paramount for food and nutritional security, in addition to other needs for medicines and fibre etc., of the present as well as future generations especially with the changing climate. Central to these issues, is the recognition that if crop genetic resources (including landraces) are to be conserved successfully and sustainably on-farm, such an outcome should be the result of farmers’ production activities directed to improve his/her livelihood (“conservation through use”), as no conservation of diversity can be successful if removed from the people that need it. This means that on-farm conservation efforts must be carried out within the framework of farmers’ livelihood needs, and for that reasons, the mobilization of support to on farm conservation need to be conceived and designed within the broader objective of creating a more enabling environment for agricultural development in its various aspects. Since the time that the Convention on Biological Diversity provided a general framework for ex situ and in situ conservation strategies, most agencies dealing with plant genetic resources conservation have been facing the dilemma of how to implement in practical terms in situ conservation of agricultural biodiversity. Major challenge is difficulty in changing the mindset of current plant genetic resources institutional set up. Institutions and researchers need to work closer with farmers and communities as the successful on-farm conservation of crop diversity demands not only to provide incentive for conservation but also empowering them in self directed decision making. A programme must establish a strong relationship between all the different large multidisciplinary institutions and local farmers. Too often, local organizations are ignored and the needs of communities are not addressed. Future development should work on understanding the concerns of local farmers and creating awareness on why genetic diversity and gene/allele combinations in the form of landraces should be important to them. We need to better understand how farmers value crop diversity and how they exchange varieties within and between communities. Once these problems are fixed, in situ conservation programs can successfully protect diversity while simultaneously improving the livelihoods of farmers. Even though genetic basis of on farm conservation is not very clear (work is underway), serious efforts on in situ conservation of crop genetic resources would only lead to a win-win situation, i.e. conserving and using crop genetic diversity for the benefit of those who depend on it. In addition, it can help us to contribute to environmental health through its contribution to ecosystem functions in general. Gradually over the decade many researchers agree that in situ conservation is important and feasible but difficult as it does not fit the scheme of things in a formal sector research and development plans. So when presented the option of conserving plant genetic resources easier option i.e. ex situ conservation is chosen neglecting in situ approach. This needs to be corrected and this can only happen when the mind set of researchers is changed and when communities actually get to make decisions that directly affect them. In many ways it is also important to note that on-farm conservation per se is not a panacea on its own as it is neither recommended as a universal practice nor a feasible method in all circumstances; it has a place and time, as on-farm conservation can be transient and subject to change over time and that provides the major link with ex situ conservation and both approaches complement each other. It is important to see that conservation is a kind of spectrum extending from strictly in situ to completely static ex situ and that it is possible to have various degrees of ex situ and in situ in our efforts to conserve genetic resources.

Background: The crime of enforced disappearance is one of the most serious human rights violations, as it causes severe suffering to victims and their families. This crime involves depriving a person of their freedom and fundamental rights in secret, without any official recognition, leaving victims living in a constant state of isolation and anxiety. Addressing this crime has become not only a legal obligation but also a moral obligation for states and the international community to protect victims and ensure justice. Modern criminal policies attach special importance to victims of the crime, not only by punishing the perpetrator but also by seeking to achieve justice through fair compensation for victims and their families. This approach is reflected in international and national legislation and the trends of international human rights courts. The importance of this study lies in analysing the legal framework for compensation for crimes of enforced disappearance from a comparative perspective between international law, UAE legislation and other comparative legislation, with the aim of assessing the adequacy of these laws in protecting victims and ensuring their compensation. Methods: This study uses descriptive, analytical, and comparative methods to define compensation for enforced disappearance crimes, identify eligible recipients, and explore various compensation forms. Additionally, it analyses international court rulings on compensation for the crime of enforced disappearance, examines relevant provisions in Emirati law, and compares these with corresponding legal frameworks from other jurisdictions. The comparison of the legislations of Spain, the Philippines, Yemen, Qatar, and Venezuela with that of the UAE highlights the progress and gaps in the UAE's approach to compensating victims of enforced disappearance crimes. This method provides a legal model that the UAE legislator can benefit from in developing and expanding the legal foundations for compensation for the aforementioned crimes. Results and Conclusions: The research concluded with several findings, the most significant being the insufficiency of current Emirati legislation to comprehensively compensate victims of enforced disappearance, unlike other comparative legislations. Human rights courts, such as the Inter-American and European Courts of Human Rights, have played a crucial role in establishing principles related to comprehensive compensation for enforced disappearance crimes. The study recommends removing the statute of limitations on compensation claims, allowing victims or their families to seek justice regardless of when the crime occurred. It also suggests benefiting from international judicial trends and successful global experiences in drafting national punitive legislation related to the criminalisation of enforced disappearance.

Brazil is one of the most biodiverse countries on Earth, holding ∼10% of the world's vascular plant species. Despite that, Brazilian agriculture is highly dependent on genetic resources originating from other countries. Embrapa (Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation) is the governmental institution that, since 1973, has been responsible for the introduction and conservation of genetic resources in Brazil. In this article, we report on the experiences that Embrapa has faced over the past 45 years to build and improve a national network for the preservation of plant genetic resources under the coordination of Embrapa Genetic Resources & Biotechnology (CENARGEN), one of the 42 Embrapa decentralized units. The first network-based model, RENARGEN, initiated in 2003, was followed by the National Platform for Genetic Resources (Platform RG) in 2009; and from 2014 until today Embrapa manages the conservation of genetic resources through Portfolio REGEN, in which the plant component is called Plant Genetic Resources Network (RGV). This network covers activities of enrichment, conservation, characterization, and documentation of genebanks. Embrapa's plant genetic resources are conserved in active genebanks (AGs), in long-term seed bank (Colbase), and in vitro and DNA banks. In situ and on-farm conservation are also handled at Embrapa to complement and reinforce ex situ conservation. The latest survey reveals that Embrapa has 134 AGs with ∼150,000 accessions of 1130 plant species, 123,000 accessions of 735 species within Colbase, 1250 in vitro accessions, and 12,000 DNA samples. At least 65% of this collection is documented and available to the public in the Embrapa Alelo system, which also handles quarantine, germplasm exchange, and herbarium data. By the end of 2018, the public Alelo data will be automatically migrated to the Genesys system. In the last 40 years, ∼650,000 accessions have been exchanged by Embrapa, with 70% of them imported from other countries.

The article examines the problem of protection of human rights in national and international law, which is the most important feature of civil society. Taking into account the importance of the area under study, as well as the importance of a clear settlement of relations regarding the observance of human rights in all spheres of life, the question of the relationship between the norms of national and international legislation in this area is acute. The purpose of the study is to determine the priorities between national and international legislation, as well as to establish the compliance of domestic norms designed to protect human rights with international legal standards. It has been established that the Constitution consolidates the priority of international instruments over national legislation that clearly defines the relationship and interaction of internationally recognized standards and principles with the relevant provisions of the current legislation of Ukraine in the sphere of protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms. This ensures that the participating countries comply with both their home-constitutions and international legal acts. Moreover, the level of global security depends on the level of correlation between the policies of individual states and the provisions of international legal norms. But the standards and principles of international law and international agreements of Ukraine may not be above the constitutional and are a part of the national system of law, which is based on the Constitution of Ukraine. In addition, international standards should not be perceived as immutable, since it may lead to a partial loss of the national identity of the legal system. Therefore, the perception of these international standards should take into account the traditions and specifics of the national legal system. The Constitution of Ukraine shall be a guarantor of preserving national identity in the process of implementation or reception of international standards. It is determined that international legal standards are the determining factor that determines the level of correlation of national legislation with the relevant international legal norms. International legal standards have been defined as the determining factor that reveals the correlation level of national legislation with relevant international legal norms.