Abstract
Biomarkers are promising tools for biomonitoring, both in the marine and freshwater environment. It is however clear that much more information is needed about the exact relation between biomarker responses and the health and fitness of organisms, and even more so between biomarker responses and risks for the ecosystem. In order to address these questions, it is important to realise that the possibilities for the application of a biomarker depend on the concept that is chosen for environmental monitoring. The purpose of monitoring programs varies from simple screening to risk characterisation on the ecosystem level. This paper compares a number of these concepts with respect to how biomarkers can be used and with respect to the specific requirements for further implementation of biomarkers in environmental monitoring.
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