Composition of fatty acids in hemp leaves (Cannabis sativa L.) under the impact of aphids and a herbicide

The most common food using hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is hempseed oil (HSO) because it
\nis a rich source of nutrients with nutritional and functional beneficial effects for human
\nbody. Harvesting time can affect the quality of HSO, consequently the aim of this study
\nwas to evaluate the composition of lipid fraction, fatty acids, tocopherols and sterols,
\nduring ripening. Two cultivars, Futura 75 and Carmagnola, were collected at three ripening
\nstages during August and September 2015 and their lipid composition was determined by
\nanalytical techniques. Among the fatty acid identified, the linoleic acid was the
\npreponderant, followed by oleic, α-linolenic and palmitic acid. Linoleic:α-linolenic acid
\nand polyunsaturated:saturated fatty acid ratios decreased and increased, respectively, in
\nboth varieties with ripening. γ-tocopherol was the preponderant tocopherol identified,
\nFutura 75 showed the highest content in the middle of maturation while Carmagnola at the
\nbeginning. β-sitosterol was the predominant sterol identified in both varieties, followed by
\ncampesterol, ∆5-avenasterol, stigmasterol and ∆7-stigmasterol. Total sterol content
\nincreased and decreased with ripening in Futura 75 and Carmagnola, respectively. The
\nstudy confirms that ripening stage affects the quality of hempseed oil, important
\nparameter to consider for hemp seed producers.

The seed of the hemp plant (Cannabis sativa L.) has been revered as a nutritional resource in Old World Cultures. This has been confirmed by contemporary science wherein hempseed oil (HSO) was found to exhibit a desirable ratio of omega-6 and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) considered optimal for human nutrition. HSO also contains gamma-linoleic acid (GLA) and non-psychoactive cannabinoids, which further contribute to its’ potential bioactive properties. Herein, we present the kinetics of the thermal stability of these nutraceutical compounds in HSO, in the presence of various antioxidants (e.g. butylated hydroxytoluene, alpha-tocopherol, and ascorbyl palmitate). We focussed on oxidative changes in fatty acid profile and acidic cannabinoid stability when HSO was heated at different temperatures (25 °C to 85 °C) for upto 24 h. The fatty acid composition was evaluated using both GC/MS and 1H-NMR, and the cannabinoids profile of HSO was obtained using both HPLC-UV and HPLC/MS methods. The predicted half-life (DT50) for omega-6 and omega-3 PUFAs in HSO at 25 °C was about 3 and 5 days, respectively; while that at 85 °C was about 7 and 5 hours respectively, with respective activation energies (Ea) being 54.78 ± 2.36 and 45.02 ± 2.87 kJ/mol. Analysis of the conjugated diene hydroperoxides (CDH) and p-Anisidine value (p-AV) revealed that the addition of antioxidants significantly (p < 0.05) limited lipid peroxidation of HSO in samples incubated at 25–85 °C for 24 h. Antioxidants reduced the degradation constant (k) of PUFAs in HSO by upto 79%. This corresponded to a significant (p < 0.05) increase in color stability and pigment retention (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoids) of heated HSO. Regarding the decarboxylation kinetics of cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) in HSO, at both 70 °C and 85 °C, CBDA decarboxylation led to predominantly cannabidiol (CBD) production. The half-life of CBDA decarboxylation (originally 4 days) could be increased to about 17 days using tocopherol as an antioxidant. We propose that determining acidic cannabinoids decarboxylation kinetics is a useful marker to measure the shelf-life of HSO. The results from the study will be useful for researchers looking into the thermal treatment of hempseed oil as a functional food product, and those interested in the decarboxylation kinetics of the acidic cannabinoids.

The influence of temperature on the fatty acid composition of the oils from conventional and high oleic sunflower genotypes grown in tropical regions was evaluated under various environmental conditions in Brazil (from 0° S to 23° S). The amounts of the oleic, linoleic, palmitic and stearic fatty acids from the sunflower oil were determined using gas chromatography (GC). The environment exhibited little influence on the amounts of oleic and linoleic fatty acids in high oleic genotypes of sunflower. In conventional genotypes, there was broad variation in the average amounts of these two fatty acids, mainly as a function of the minimum temperature. Depending on the temperature, especially during the maturation of the seeds, the amount of oleic acid in the oil of conventional sunflower genotypes could exceed 70 %. Higher temperatures led to average increases of up to 35 % for this fatty acid. Although the minimum temperature had the strongest effect on the fatty acid composition, locations at the same latitude with different minimum temperatures displayed similar values for both oleic acid and linoleic acid. Furthermore, minimum temperature had little influence on the amounts of palmitic and stearic fatty acids in the oil.

The article presents the results of the analysis of literature sources that contain research data on the fatty acid composition of hemp oil (Cannabis sativa L.). Today, sown hemp is confidently occupying a segment of the food market, increasing the range. From ancient times the hemp was used as a source of fiber, from which woven garments were made, and the seeds were eaten. Later, nutritious oil was extracted from the seeds of the crop in the areas of hemp growing. In the twentieth century, researchers noticed to hemp oil and described in detail its fatty acid composition. The presence of polyunsaturated acids (ώ-3), in particular linolenic, in hemp oil puts the crop among the most valuable. A whole complex of other fatty acids was also found, such as palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic, oleic, linolenic, γ-linolenic, arachidonic, behenic, lignoceric, and others. According to various authors, modern varieties of hemp, both domestic and foreign selection, are characterized by different ratios of fatty acids in the oil, with unsaturated acids predominating. Linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic fatty acids (or vitamin F) prevent the deposition of cholesterol in the arteries, ensure healthy skin and hair, have a positive effect on the activity of the endocrine glands, help reduce body weight by burning saturated fats. These fatty acids are a source of formation in the body of biologically active substances ‒ prostaglandins. Especially valuable in hemp oil is the presence of linoleic, linolenic and gamma-linolenic acids. These important acids are found in large quantities in nature quite rarely. In the quantitative composition of the ratio of glycerides of these acids in hemp oil 3 : 1 (56 linoleic and 19 % linolenic). The most important physiological action of polyunsaturated fatty acids is a strong antisclerotic effect, the ability to lower blood cholesterol, reduce growth and even resorb atherosclerotic plaques. The use of α-linolenic acid prevents the oxidation of cell membrane lipids, insulin resistance, promotes normal fetal development, growth processes, proper development of the brain, visual organs, gonads, improves the biochemistry of the nervous system, synapses, nerve impulse transmission, brain blood pressure and blood cholesterol levels. The article also covers the agronomic characteristics of hemp fruit, as well as the peculiarities of lipid formation processes.

Epidemiological studies suggest that chronic consumption of trans MUFA may alter muscle insulin sensitivity. The major sources of dietary trans MUFA (dairy fat vs. industrially hydrogenated oils) have different isomeric profiles and thus probably different metabolic consequences. These effects may involve alterations in muscle mitochondrial oxidative capacity, which may in turn promote insulin resistance if fatty acid oxidation is reduced. We report that in Wistar rats, an 8 week diet enriched (4% of energy intake) in either dairy, industrial, or control MUFA did not alter insulin and glucose responses to an intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test (1g/kg). In C2C12 myotubes, vaccenic and elaidic acids did not modify insulin sensitivity compared with oleic acid. Furthermore, the ex vivo total, mitochondrial and peroxisomal oxidation rates of [1-(14)C]oleic, vaccenic, and elaidic acids were similar in soleus and tibialis anterior rat muscle. Finally, an 8 week diet enriched in either dairy or industrial trans MUFA did not alter mitochondrial oxidative capacity in these two muscles compared with control MUFA but did induce a specific reduction in soleus mitochondrial ATP and superoxide anion production (P<0.01 vs. control). In conclusion, dietary trans MUFA of dairy or industrial origin have similar effects and do not impair muscle mitochondrial capacity and insulin sensitivity.

Introduction. Cannabis sativa is a source of oil seeds for pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food uses. Objective. The aim of this study is to evaluate the hypolipidemic effect of hemp seed oil (HSO) obtained from a local ecotype called “Beldiya.” Methods. The extraction of HSO was carried out by cold press method. Then, the fatty acid and tocopherol composition was analyzed, respectively, by GC-FID and HPLC. The hypolipidemic activity of HSO at a dose of 3.5 and 7 mg/kg body weight was evaluated in Triton WR-1339-induced hyperlipidemic mice by measuring plasma cholesterol (total lipid, HDL, and LDL), plasma triglycerides, and atherogenic index using enzymatic methods. Fenofibrate was used as a standard hypolipidemic drug at a dose of 3.5 mg/kg body weight. Results. Analyzed HSO shows a high unsaturated fatty acids’ content with the dominance of linoleic acid (48.85%), oleic acid (21.82%), as well as α- and γ-linolenic acid (14.72%). The result demonstrates that this typical vegetable oil contains a high concentration of γ-tocopherol (456 mg·kg−1 oil). Furthermore, the administration of HSO decreases plasma total cholesterol, triglycerides, and LDL-cholesterol while increases HDL-cholesterol. Consequently, the HSO reduces the atherogenic index and LDL/HDL ratio. The hypolipidemic effect of fenofibrate is relatively more marked comparatively to that of HSO especially concerning total cholesterol and its LDL fraction. Conclusions. The local ecotype HSO has an interesting effect on plasma lipid parameters and might be beneficial for the treatment of hyperlipidemia and prevention of atherosclerosis.

We hypothesized that the polyunsaturated fatty acids of the butterfly were probably derived from the diet and that there might be a great loss of body fat during metamorphosis. To substantiate these hypotheses, we analyzed the fatty acid composition and content of the diet, the larva, and the butterfly Morpho peleides. Both the diet and the tissues of the larva and butterfly had a high concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids. In the diet, linolenic acid accounted for 19% and linoleic acid for 8% of total fatty acids. In the larva, almost 60% of the total fatty acids were polyunsaturated: linolenic acid predominated at 42% of total fatty acids, and linoleic acid was at 17%. In the butterfly, linolenic acid represented 36% and linoleic acid represented 11% of total fatty acids. The larva had a much higher total fatty acid content than the butterfly (20.2 vs. 6.9 mg). Our data indicate that the transformation from larva to butterfly during metamorphosis drastically decreased the total fatty acid content. There was bioenhancement of polyunsaturated fatty acids from the diet to the larva and butterfly. This polyunsaturation of membranes may have functional importance in providing membrane fluidity useful in flight.

ABSTRACTThe physicochemical characteristics of cold‐pressed hemp, flax, hazelnut, and pumpkin seed oils, along with the valorization opportunities of press cakes, were investigated. Initially, cold‐pressed oils were analyzed for their yield, total fat content, acylglycerol composition, fatty acid compositions, and oxidative stability. In addition to analyzing the oils, the press cakes were also evaluated. Specifically, we assessed their fiber content, fatty acid, and amino acid profile. The oil yield of the seeds ranged from 20.62% to 54.07%, with hazelnut seeds recording the highest level. The acylglycerol composition of the oils showed low quality for commercial purposes in terms of partial hydrolysis of the oils (4.34%–17.08% free fatty acids and 3.68%–11.59% diacylglycerol). The highest percentage of total unsaturated fatty acids was recorded for hazelnut (92.47%), followed by flax (90.95%) and hemp (90.03%), and the highest degree of polyunsaturated fatty acids belonged to flaxseed oil and hemp seed oil (76.40% and 76.00%, respectively). The induction period of cold‐pressed oils ranged between 3.29 and 17.30 h, with hazelnut oil being the most stable one. Additionally, the press cakes demonstrated significant potential as a source of dietary fiber (16.50%–34.94%), protein (26.49%–44.50%), and oil (6.45%–34.69%). The fatty acid and amino acid composition of press cakes showed that they can be a valuable source of essential amino acids (8.96%–15.00%).Practical Applications: The research not only provided valuable insights into the physicochemical properties of cold‐pressed oils but also emphasized the significant potential of their by‐products, the press cakes, within the food industry.

Problem statement: Fatty acid content and composition in mollusks is a function of their feeding diversity. Chabahar bay located in the northern part of Oman sea in Indian ocean provides high rates of primary productivity and a diverse food source for mollusks in this area. Identification of fatty acid compositions of Chiton lamyi and study their seasonal changes in the intertidal zone of Chabahar bay. Study the meat quality by n-6: n-3 ratios calculation throughout the year. Approach: Chiton lamyi species analyzed seasonally for its fatty acid compositions in foot and internal tissue separately by GC/MS chromatography. Temperature and nutrients measured monthly for evaluating their effects on investigated seasonal variations of fatty acids. Pearson analysis showed effects of measured environmental factors on studied fatty acids composition. n-6: n-3 ratio calculated seasonally in order to study meat quality. Results: Thirteen fatty acids identified in foot and internal tissue of Chiton lamyi. The major Saturated Fatty Acids (SFAs) were myristic, palmitic and stearic acids. The major Mono-Unsaturated Fatty Acids (MUFAs) were palmitoleic, oleic and 11-eicosenoic acids and Poly-Unsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs) were linoleic, eicosapentaenoic and arachidonic acids. Palmitic acid was the most abundant in this species. Fatty acid contents of foot and internal tissue of Chiton lamyi were similar but their seasonal variations were different. Pearson analysis showed correlation among palmitic and oleic acids with silicate; oleic acid with phosphate; Linoleic and arachidonic acids with nitrate in Chiton lamyi internal tissues, but no correlation observed in foot. Although temperature showed correlation with heptadecanoic and methyl-heptadecanoic acids in Chiton lamyi foot, no correlation found in internal tissues. Also, n-6: n-3 ratio calculations showed domination of n-3 fatty acid over n-6 only in spring. Conclusion: Fatty acid variations were not same at different organs and environmental factors could have opposite effects on them in this species. Also, n-6: n-3 ratio showed the lack of food loads throughout the year except in spring for this species. These findings can lead the best exploitation periods for such marine mollusks.

Among the grain legumes from the Old World, we may single out two species of the genus Lathyrus (L. sativus L. and L. cicera L.), one species of the genus Trigonella (T. foenum-graecum L.), and three species of the genus Vicia (V. ervilia (L). Willd., V. monanthos (L). Desf. and V. narbonensis L.) on account of their current state of marginalization [1]. Lathyrus genus, which is in Leguminosea, is large, with 187 species and subspecies [2]. The main centers of diversity in the genus are around the Mediterranean region, Asia Minor, North America, and temperate region of South America [3, 4]. The widespread use of legumes makes this food group an important source of lipid and fatty acids in animal and human nutrition. Some publications dealing with the total lipid and fatty acid composition are reviewed by a few researchers [5–7]. Metal ions, metal complexes, and vitamins are materials that play an important role in vital functions of organisms [8]. The objective of the present study was to determine the fatty acid and trace elements of the seeds of Lathyrus sativus L. varieties. In addition, during the course of this study, we aimed to characterize the seed fatty acids used by animals in the field, to establish the nutritional value, and to make contributions as to the renewable resources of FA and other chemical patterns in these crops. The results of the fatty acid analysis are shown in Table 1, and the trace elements ara shown in Table 2. The fatty acid composition of some Lathyrus varieties used as feed crops from the Fabaceae family showed different saturated and unsaturated fatty acid concentrations. The total unsaturated fatty acids (TUSFA) of the studied Lathyrus varieties were found to be between 63.54 and 72.45%. Oleic acid (18:1) of these varieties ranged from 17.91 to 22.46%. Linoleic acid of these varieties ranged from 39.61 to 43.18%. A number of studies suggest that the unsaturated fatty acid component of Fabaceae seed oils resembles each other, and oleic and linoleic acid (18:3) were the main components in seed oil [9]. Oleic and linoleic acid are the principal component acids (about 65% of the total fatty acids). The percentages of these two acids are inversely correlated – some of the legume oils are rich in linoleic acid, whereas in others oleic acid is present in larger amounts [10]. Linolenic acid was also detected in the seed oil of Lathyrus varieties, but at very low levels in all of the patterns when compared with linoleic and oleic acid. For edible purposes, oil should have a minimal amount of linolenic acid since it is commonly thought to be the prime constituent responsible for reversion to undesirable flavors in stored oils and in food products containing vegetable oils [10]. Total saturated fatty acids (TSFA) of the studied Lathyrus varieties were found between 27.54 and 36.18%. In terms of the saturated acid components of the seed oils, palmitic acid was found abundant. These results were supported by other studies [11]. Saturated acid components of the seed oils revealed that the low-molecular-weight acids caproic (6:0), caprylic (8:0), and capric (10:0) acids commonly occur in all the investigated varieties. There is some evidence that the rarer fatty acids, like nonprotein amino acids, may be harmful to animals eating the seeds 12. The concentrations of the elements in the seeds are presented in Table 2. All data are averages of three measurements on each sample. The levels of metals were calculated on g/g dry weight. Eight elements (Cu, Mn, Mo, Na, Zn, Fe, Mg, and B) were detected in the crop seeds in different amounts. Magnesium is a critical structural component of the chlorophyll molecule and is necessary for the function of plant enzymes to produce carbohydrates, sugars, and fats. The high quantity of potassium, magnesium, and calcium together with the quantity of sodium plus the content of the essential elements iron, manganese, zinc, and copper allow the seeds to be considered as excellent sources of bioelements [12].

Detailed changes in composition of fatty acids, as well as alterations in the content of triacylglycerols and tocopherols during the maturation of Kataloński hazelnuts grown in Jankowice, Poland were studied. Samples with different maturity levels were collected at weekly intervals between August and September 2013. Nineteen different fatty acids were identified. The amount of oleic acid (n9) was the greatest in all samples, the amount of linoleic acid (n6) acid was second greatest, while the amount of palmitic acid was third greatest in all samples, except during the very first stage of maturation. A decreasing trend in the amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) was observed from early developed to completely maturated hazelnuts (from 30.09 to 10.28 g 100 g−1 of oil). On the other hand, the amount of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) in hazelnuts increased from early to harvest stage (from 22.03 to 79.17 g 100 g−1 of oil). Linoleic acid and oleic acid were the most abundant fatty acids located in sn‐2 position of triacylglycerols. Different distributions of both acids were reported during maturation. Oleic acid reported a constant distribution in an internal position, whereas linoleic acid content in sn‐2 position increased during maturation. Finally, the tocopherol content increased from early to harvest stage and the amount of α‐tocopherol was observed to be the highest among tocols.Practical applications: The composition of hazelnuts changes during maturation. Harvest timing has a strong effect on both oil yield and quality factors, such as fatty acid composition and tocopherol content. The distinguishing features mentioned have a significant impact on the hazelnut's final oxidative stability, which is an important parameter from the grower's and distributor's practical perspective. The results obtained may be applied to the specific set up of harvesting time, when the nuts contain the highest amount of desired fatty acid. At the beginning of the maturation period, hazelnut kernels are an abundant source of both MUFA and PUFA (especially essential ones) and can be perceived as beneficial additive compounds to be applied in pharmaceutical and cosmetic products.The composition of the hazelnuts' lipid fraction changes during maturation. This includes the tocopherol content, fatty acid composition and fatty acid distribution in TAG molecules. Upon the ripening of hazelnuts, the content of monounsaturated fatty acids was increased, the content of saturated fatty acids was constant and polyunsaturated fatty acids decreased significantly (p &lt; 0.05). The α‐tocopherol concentration increased during the kernel growing season, while the content of γ‐ and β‐homologues decreased significantly (p &lt; 0.05). Additionally, highly significant positive correlations were found between the amount of α‐tocopherol and oleic acid and between the amount of γ‐tocopherol and linoleic acid.

The most common food using hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is hempseed oil (HSO) because it is a rich source of nutrients and not nutrients with nutritional and functional beneficial effects for human body. Harvesting time can affect the quality of HSO, consequently the aim of this study was to evaluate the composition of lipid fraction, fatty acids, tocopherols and sterols, during ripening. Two cultivars, Futura 75 and Carmagnola, were collected at three ripening stages during August and September 2015 and their lipid composition was determined by analytical techniques. Among the fatty acid identified, the linoleic acid was the preponderant, followed by oleic, α-linolenic and palmitic acid. Linoleic:α-linolenic acid and polyunsaturated:saturated fatty acid ratios decreased and increased, respectively, in both varieties with ripening. γ-tocopherol was the preponderant tocopherol identified, Futura 75 showed the highest content in the middle of maturation while Carmagnola at the beginning. β-sitosterol was the predominant sterol identified in both varieties, followed by campesterol, Δ5-avenasterol, stigmasterol and Δ7-stigmasterol. Total sterol content increased and decreased with ripening in Futura 75 and Carmagnola, respectively. The study confirms that ripening stage affects the quality of hempseed oil, important parameter to consider for hemp seed producers.

Cardiolipin is a major mitochondrial membrane glycerophospholipid in the mammalian heart. In this study, the ability of the isolated intact rat heart to remodel cardiolipin and the mitochondrial enzyme activities that reacylate monolysocardiolipin to cardiolipin in vitro were characterized. Adult rat heart cardiolipin was found to contain primarily linoleic and oleic acids. Perfusion of the isolated intact rat heart in the Langendorff mode with various radioactive fatty acids, followed by analysis of radioactivity incorporated into cardiolipin and its immediate precursor phosphatidylglycerol, indicated that unsaturated fatty acids entered into cardiolipin mainly by deacylation followed by reacylation. The in vitro mitochondrial acylation of monolysocardiolipin to cardiolipin was coenzyme A-dependent with a pH optimum in the alkaline range. Significant activity was also present at physiological pH. With oleoyl-coenzyme A as substrate, the apparent K(m) for oleoyl-coenzyme A and monolysocardiolipin were 12.5 microm and 138.9 microm, respectively. With linoleoyl-coenzyme A as substrate, the apparent K(m) for linoleoyl-coenzyme A and monolysocardiolipin were 6.7 microm and 59.9 microm, respectively. Pre-incubation at 50 degrees C resulted in different profiles of enzyme inactivation for the two activities. Both activities were affected similarly by phospholipids, triacsin C, and various lipid binding proteins but were affected differently by various detergents and myristoyl-coenzyme A. [(3)H]cardiolipin was not formed from monolyso[(3)H]cardiolipin in the absence of acyl-coenzyme A. Monolysocardiolipin acyltransferase activities were observed in mitochondria prepared from various other rat tissues. In summary, the data suggest that the isolated intact rat heart has the ability to rapidly remodel cardiolipin and that rat heart mitochondria contain coenzyme A-dependent acyltransferase(s) for the acylation of monolysocardiolipin to cardiolipin. A simple and reproducible in vitro assay for the determination of acyl-coenzyme A- dependent monolysocardiolipin acyltransferase activity in mammalian tissues with exogenous monolysocardiolipin substrate is also presented.

We have studied oxygenation of fatty acids by cell extract of Pseudomonas aeruginosa 42A2. Oleic acid ((9Z)-18:1) was transformed to (10S)-hydroperoxy-(8E)-octadecenoic acid ((10S)-HPOME) and to (7S,10S)-dihydroxy-(8E)-octadecenoic acid (7,10-DiHOME). Experiments under oxygen-18 showed that 7,10-DiHOME contained oxygen from air and was formed sequentially from (10S)-HPOME by isomerization. (10R)-HPOME was not isomerized. The (10S)-dioxygenase and hydroperoxide isomerase activities co-eluted on ion exchange chromatography and on gel filtration with an apparent molecular size of approximately 50 kDa. 16:1n-7, 18:2n-6, and 20:1n-11 were also oxygenated to 7,10-dihydroxy fatty acids, and (8Z)-18:1 was oxygenated to 6,9-dihydroxy-(7E)-octadecenoic acid. A series of fatty acids with the double bond positioned closer to ((6Z)-18:1, (5Z,9Z)-18:2) or more distant from the carboxyl group ((11Z)-, (13Z)-, and (15Z)-18:1) were poor substrates. The oxygenation mechanism was studied with [7S-(2)H]18:1n-9, [7R-(2)H]18:2n-6, and [8R-(2)H]18:2n-6 as substrates. The pro-R hydrogen at C-8 was lost in the biosynthesis of (10S)-HPODE, whereas the pro-S hydrogen was lost and the pro-R hydrogen was retained at C-7 during biosynthesis of the 7,10-dihydroxy metabolites. Analysis of the fatty acid composition of P. aeruginosa revealed relatively large amounts of (9E/Z)-16:1 and (11E/Z)-18:1 and only traces of 18:1n-9. We found that (11Z)-18:1 (vaccenic acid) was transformed to (11S,14S)-dihydroxy-(12E)-octadecenoic acid and to a mixture of 11- and 12-HPOME, possibly due to reverse orientation of (11Z)-18:1 at the active site compared with oleic acid. The reaction mechanism of the hydroperoxide isomerase suggests catalytic similarities to cytochrome P450.

Fat Embolism in Orthopedic Surgery