COMPLEXITIES IN DEALING WITH GENDER INEQUALITY: Muslim Women and Mosque-Based Social Services in East Java Indonesia

This longitudinal evaluation of gender inequalities and economic growth addresses key questions in the evolving debate over the character of gender differentiation and the goals of womens empowerment. These questions include: 1) whether the impact of strategies of economic growth served to enhance or undermine the status of women; 2) whether changes in the status of women were accompanied by significant changes in gender inequality; and 3) the implications for existing debates. Section I reviews several sets of literature pertinent to the questions using three general approaches: modernization-neoclassical women in development and gender and development. Section II presents the data and methods used in the evaluation. The research assessed the contending interpretations reviewed in the first section by combining another set of cross-sectional and longitudinal data on womens status and inequalities between men and women with other existing indicators. Section III discusses the results in the following order: 1) cross-sectional patterns in womens status; 2) trends in womens status; 3) cross-sectional patterns in inequality between men and women; 4) trends in inequality between men and women; and 5) conclusion. Finally section IV presents an overall discussion of the findings of the whole longitudinal evaluation.

Editorial

Gender equality and women's empowerment have been increasingly emphasised in food production systems, including fisheries and aquaculture. Accurate assessment and understanding of the state, progress and changes in women's empowerment in the sub-sectors is required. We applied the project level Women's Empowerment in Fisheries and Aquaculture Index (pro-WEFI), which is based on the project-level women's empowerment in agriculture index (pro-WEAI) to standardize the measurement of women's agency and empowerment in fisheries and aquaculture. Drawing on a survey conducted in north-western Bangladesh, we examined quantitative pro-WEFI data collected from 217 households engaged in aquaculture. Only 33% of the women and 48% of the men in the sample achieved empowerment in aquaculture, attaining scores of 0.75 and above. The mean disempowerment score (1-3DE) revealed that both women and men failed to achieve adequacy on average in nearly 28% of the indicators. Nearly 40% of the dual adult households did not attain gender parity with women achieving lower adequacy scores than men from the same household. Women's disempowerment was primarily driven by lack of autonomy in their use of income (18.5%), inability to visit important locations (17.4%), and inadequate access to and decision making on financial services (13.4%). Our findings emphasize the significance of conducting comprehensive assessments of women's empowerment in aquaculture initiatives and its various domains and indicators inform the development of targeted and effective interventions. By identifying domains where gender inequality is most pronounced, projects can better design interventions to create targeted impacts in critical areas.

The purpose of this study is to determine the position and role of women in the life of the nation and state through national policies carried out by institutions that are able to fight for the realization of gender equality and justice. In order to improve the quality of the role and independence of women's organizations while maintaining the value of unity and unity as well as the historical value of women's struggle in order to continue efforts to empower women as well as the welfare of families and communities. Thus the empowerment of women in the context of realizing gender justice and equality is a commitment of the Indonesian people whose implementation is the responsibility of all parties of the executive, legislative, judicial, religious leaders and society as a whole. The results showed that the role of women greatly affected development. Furthermore, it was found that women could improve the quality of human resources and create gender justice and equality.

American Religion 1, no. 2 (Spring 2020), pp. 145–147 Copyright © 2020, The Trustees of Indiana University • doi: 10.2979/amerreli.1.2.17 Book Review Juliane Hammer, Peaceful Families: American Muslim Efforts Against Domestic Violence (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2019) Merin Shobhana Xavier Queen’s University, Kingston, Canada Juliane Hammer’s new book, Peaceful Families: American Muslim Efforts Against Domestic Violence, employs various methods of data collection, including ethnography, semi-structured interviews, and media analysis, to discuss domestic violence (DV) in America, while centering the advocacy and policy work of American Muslim organizations against domestic violence. The first chapter situates the central story that catalyzed this project, and that is of Aasiya Zubair, whose brutal death at the hands of her husband received wide media attention in America. Zubair’s narrative is contrasted to Mildred Muhammad, an African-American Muslim woman and the ex-wife of the infamous John Allen Muhammad (the DC sniper) (whose story is unpacked further in chapter two) whose troubled relationship with her ex-husband did not elicit the same media attention as Zubair’s, likely due to her racialized identity. In centering the stories of these varyingly racialized Muslim women, Hammer questions the role that honor, in the context of culture, plays in some Muslim communities, while also critiquing how American media’s anti-Muslim sentiments implicated the ways these women’s stories were consumed by a popular audience. Having raised these central queries, chapter three shifts the analysis to consider the role of domestic violence awareness through education amongst Muslim American Religion 1:2 146 communities, particularly in terms of the resources and services that are made available. Chapter four further develops the need for education around domestic violence, while chapter five examines the work of American Muslim male prayer leaders (imams) and their efforts against domestic violence, especially in the context of mosques. Chapter six surveys some of the services that are available to Muslim victims and the survivors of domestic violence, such as FAITH (Foundation for Appropriate and Immediate Temporary Help) and Peaceful Families. This chapter utilizes the author’s interview material to create vignettes of individual service providers and advocates, be they Muslim woman lawyers or counselors, who have created organizations that support battered women across America. For instance, it provides some field note reflections of Hammer’s visit to a Muslim women’s group home, where she participated in group counseling and took part in a meal and prayers. Here the need for having a specific Muslim women -only group home that addresses the cultural and religious needs of Muslim women is highlighted. DV-support systems that serve Muslim victims are important resources, however their focus on Muslim clientele means that they are not eligible to receive funding from the federal and state level, because the services provided are not publicly available to non-Muslims. As such, many of the noted organizations that serve Muslim women are dependent on funding and patronage from Muslim communities and individual patrons. Yet, such support remains an issue, as some of the same communities have a difficult time acknowledging the existence of domestic violence and abuse as a problem. Further, even in the context of interfaith -based anti-DV organizations, Hammer found instances (i.e., workshops) that maintained racist or bigoted perceptions of Islam. Islam was treated as a unique threat to anti-DV work; much of this is because, as Hammer writes, “Muslims, as advocates, providers, and victims, are never disconnected from negative perceptions of their religion and communities, and are even affected by them if they themselves do not foreground being Muslims as their defining identity” (222). One of the consistent themes that appears throughout the study is the praxis of Qur’anic verse 4:34, and the challenge it poses to the idea of an Islam, at least scripturally, that is against domestic violence and abuse. Here the responses by Muslims, religious leaders, and anti-DV advocates and providers indicate how they navigate the realities of gender justice and equity and/or egalitarianism differently. For instance, Hammer found that many of her interlocutors constructed notions of “protective” or “benevolent patriarchy,” where some believed it is because of the God...

Despite the teachings of Islam that advocate for women's rights and empowerment, a substantial disparity persists between the ideal principles and the actual conditions in numerous Muslim communities. Women in many Muslim-majority nations encounter diverse challenges hindering their empowerment and complete societal involvement. Key factors contributing to the predicament of women's empowerment in Islam encompass patriarchal attitudes and cultural norms that confine women's roles and opportunities, as well as limited access to education and training, restricting their active participation in economic and political spheres. Present-day concerns include workplace discrimination and bias against women, encompassing unequal pay and limited advancement opportunities. Additionally, insufficient access to healthcare, education, societal engagement, and reproductive rights adversely affect women's health and well-being. Gender-based violence and harassment, encompassing domestic violence, sexual assault, and trafficking, exacerbate these challenges. Legal inadequacies in protecting and enforcing women's rights regarding marriage, divorce, inheritance, and property ownership further compound the issue. Misinterpretation and misapplication of religious teachings contribute to harmful practices such as forced marriage and female genital mutilation. Addressing these challenges necessitates targeted interventions and policy changes to dismantle significant barriers to women's empowerment in Muslim communities. The researcher employed an inductive approach, tracing research components from exegetical, hadith, and jurisprudential books to derive general rulings. Subsequently, an analytical method was utilized to categorize and discuss scientific material, yielding specific rulings about the subject. The research reached certain significant results, emphasizing the promotion of women's rights, equality, and comprehensive societal participation to foster just and equitable societies. A focus on women's rights to education, societal engagement, economic independence, fair treatment in marriage, and protection from violence and discrimination is crucial. Quranic teachings offer valuable guidance for Muslims to contribute to women's empowerment in their societies actively.

Conventionally the social construction of a gender equality society can increase awareness of education in a patriarchal culture in Indonesia. The construction of gender equality and gender justice is carried out by people who have concerns about the role and work of women in particular and society in education. Top-down affirmations are carried out in various actions and gender equality movements. Women are the object of the equality movement to raise awareness and gender justice in the field of education. Along with the development of the times and in the era of digitalization as it is today, it can transform the paradigm of women's thinking. They actively participate in development through education. Although through various challenges and obstacles due to being in a patriarchal culture, the level of women is lower than men. This paper shows Gender Equality in Patriarchal Education and Culture, real theoretical challenges in improving gender equality, efforts to raise women's awareness of the importance of education, and the implementation of gender equality in education in the social context of society. This paper suggests the need for access and opportunity for women and public policies that are gender bias-oriented, involving women's participation and providing equitable benefits for women.

ABSTRACTPhysical infrastructure, such as market centers and roads, can foster women's economic empowerment and gender equality and mitigate adverse effects of seasonality on availability and prices of nutritious foods. The lack of infrastructure is therefore a major challenge for agricultural development in Sub‐Saharan Africa and South Asia—the regional focus of this study. It threatens food and nutrition security, depriving low‐income consumers' access to healthy, affordable food and quality nutrition. Interestingly, previous studies show that physical infrastructure promotes inclusive growth and maximizes positive impacts such as improved well‐being and sustainable development, and can contribute to the empowerment of women and girls. When infrastructural investments are planned, delivered, and managed using nutrition‐sensitive, gender‐inclusive, and responsive approaches, it can help to address barriers that impede access to nutritious diets, nutrition security, and structural inequities militating against women and girls at the household and market levels. Hence, investments in physical infrastructure could be a useful pathway for meeting various Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs 1–No Poverty, 2–Zero Hunger, 3–Good Health and Wellbeing, 5–Gender Equality, 6–Clean water and sanitation, 7–Affordable and Clean Energy, and 8–Decent Work and Economic Growth). However, few studies have examined the evidence and gaps on infrastructure's impact on nutritious diet, women's economic empowerment, and gender equality in low‐ and middle‐income countries (LMICs) in Sub‐Saharan Africa and South Asia. Evidence and gap maps are useful tools for promoting evidence‐informed decision‐making by making evidence and research gaps accessible to policymakers, development practitioners, and researchers. This EGM was conducted in the consultations with stakeholders. This study seeks to identify, map, and provide an overview of the existing evidence and gaps on the impact of physical infrastructure on nutritious diets, women's economic empowerment, and gender equality among low‐income consumers in LMICs in sub‐Saharan Africa and South Asia regions. A standardized search strategy was adapted for searching published and unpublished studies in 3 academic databases, 33 institutional websites, Google, Google Scholar, 3 existing EGMs, and 8 registries of randomized control trials and pre‐analysis plans from June 2022 to September 2022. Additional papers were identified through OpenAlex in EPPI‐Reviewer. We supplemented the database searches by conducting hand searches and backward citation searches in identified reviews for relevant studies. We also contacted five prominent authors in the literature for relevant completed and on‐going studies for the EGM. The selection criteria adapted the PICOS (population, intervention, comparison, outcomes, and study design) approach. The intervention was defined as those related to establishing or upgrading physical infrastructure for the agricultural sector and local economic development, such as production, post‐production, distribution, and information. Furthermore, the outcomes were nutritious diets, women's economic empowerment, and gender equality. This EGM does not specify a comparison group. Two other eligibility criteria for including studies were publication in the Year 2000 and onwards, and those studies written in the English language. A total of 17,102 studies were uploaded and screened in EPPI‐Reviewer data management software for titles and abstracts. About 969 studies were screened for full‐text, and 342 eligible studies were included in the map based on a pre‐defined code. The unit of analysis was a study. Therefore, each item presented in the EGM is a study. Studies reporting multiple interventions, outcomes, or study designs were coded multiple times per the appropriate coding category, but counted as one entry in the EGM. All outliers and out‐of‐range frequency values of assigned codes were identified and cleaned. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics in Microsoft Excel and STATA version 16. The EGM was generated using EPPI‐Mapper. A total of 342 studies (337 completed and 5 ongoing studies) from 54 countries across the sub‐Saharan Africa and South Asia regions were included in the EGM. The EGM shows a steady growth in evidence over the last two decades. Most of the studies were impact evaluations (n = 178), followed by summative evaluations (n = 101). Non‐experimental evaluation (n = 255) was the most common study design employed, followed by qualitative studies (n = 94), systematic review (n = 9), and scoping and other reviews (n = 48). This EGM did not find any studies using randomized controlled trials. The few systematic reviews included in the EGM had no accompanying meta‐analysis. The most studied regions were Eastern Africa (n = 133), followed by West Africa (n = 100) and South Asia (n = 93). Production infrastructure (n = 202) had most of the evidence, compared with post‐production infrastructure (n = 125), distribution infrastructure (n = 41), and information infrastructure (n = 2). Nutritious diets outcomes (n = 274) were the most reported indicators, compared with women's economic empowerment (n = 89) and gender equality (n = 53) outcomes. The aggregate map showed that production infrastructure and nutritious diets had the most cluster of evidence (n = 188) and this suggest a potential area for future evidence synthesis. This EGM presents evidence and research gaps around infrastructural interventions related to nutritious diets, women's economic empowerment, and gender equality, with specific references to the continents of Sub‐Saharan Africa and South Asia. Most of the evidence is based on non‐experimental impact evaluations, and we could not find any randomized controlled trials—a critical gap for future research. The majority of evidence was gathered in Eastern Africa, whereas Central Africa was the least documented. The most studied intervention was irrigation, and more evidence was found on nutritious diets than on women's empowerment and gender equality. This is important at the academic level and at the policy level to assist resource allocation and to support evidence‐based policy tools such as systematic reviews and policy briefs.

Most In the post-apartheid landscape of South Africa, the constitutional promise of equality continues to challenge traditional power structures, particularly within religious institutions. This article critically examines the systematic exclusion of women from leadership roles in Muslim ulama bodies, despite significant advancements in religious education and scholarly achievements by Muslim women. The research argues that the exclusion of women from ulama bodies is neither theologically justified nor practically defensible. By drawing on egalitarian interpretations of Islamic traditions, historical examples of women's scholarly contributions in Islam, and contemporary global practices of women's religious leadership, the article challenges entrenched patriarchal interpretations that restrict women's roles. Specifically, this study explores the historical context of the Muslim community in South Africa, the current composition of ulama bodies, and the extensive scholarly achievements of Muslim women. It highlights how these bodies wield considerable authority in matters of marriage, divorce, inheritance, and issuing religious legal opinions, yet remain exclusively male-led. The article reveals that Muslim women in South Africa are now extensively educated in Islamic sciences and are fully capable of occupying leadership positions. By advocating for gender diversity in religious leadership, the research proposes a path towards more inclusive, representative, and equitable religious governance that aligns with both Islamic principles and South Africa’s constitutional values of gender equality.

The Relationship between Religion and the Public Square: Freedom of Religion in the Public Space

Abstract
 This study takesup” Dimensions of Gender Equality in India.”While examining the dimensions the researchers compares the gender development index reports of states in India Gender equality-a driver for economic growth, matters in its own right,and as as pre requisite for the health and development of families and economies. The term gender equality has been on the corpet for the past two decades. The millennium development goals set gender equality and women empowerment at 3 rd place. Earlier women empowerment had been assessed interns of access to resources and later on moved to control over resources. The resources include physical resources. Fiscal resopurces, financial resources and intellectual resources. The term empowerment has been pronounced with the term empowerment after the millennium year. The post 2015 framework present a unique opportunity to build on the achievement of the millennium development goal, while also addressing that lag behind. The sustainable development goal also set Gender equality at fifth place. The reason is that Gender inequality persists everywhere and stagnates the progress of a country. The un equal treatment or perceptions of the individuals on the basis of gender have been witnessed not only in developing countries like India, but also in developed countries aswell. Gender related inequality in human well being is one of the most crucial issues in many states in India.The female dis advantage in survival is the important dimension that has drawn the attention of policy makers. InIndia the situation is not even among the states; Kearela has lesser discrimination while Odissa has higher discrimination. The sex ratio is also high in kerela which shows positive symptoms of women empowerment. Maharastra introduced property rights for women. Its percapita income is high compared to kerela but GDI is low. Female Education growth in kerela promotes gender equality.Has education alone dis appear inequalities is the million dollar question? Per capita income is not so high in kerela as compared to other southern states.
 
 The study examines gender equality on the basis of Gender Development Index, which measures gender gap in human development by accounting disparities between men and women in three dimensions of human develoipme3nt, a long and healthy life, knowledge and a decent standard of living. The global gender gap report places India at 135 out of 146 countries. India has moved from 140 to 135 from last year. Though India is moving towards one of the developed nations in the world, Gender inequality pulling its growth. Which factor is hindering the SGDs 5 the goal gender equality in India? The issue of gender inequality had been in the lime light in all academic conferences, seminars and symposiums. Why gender inequality prevails in higher degree in some states of India? What are the policy measures have to be pinned up? What are the measures to be added in those states? Any other indicators to be included along with HDI indicators? These are the research questions to be addressed. This paper is an attempt made by the researchers to address these issues

This study examines the factors influencing women entrepreneurship and empowerment in Nepalese enterprises. Women empowerment is the dependent variable. The selected independent variables are access to finance, level of education, family and social support, technological skills, and security issue. The primary source of data is used to assess the opinions of respondent’s access to finance, level of education, family and social support, technological skills, and security issue. The study is based on primary data of 132 respondents. To achieve the purpose of the study, structured questionnaire is prepared. The correlation and multiple regression models are estimated to test the significance and importance of factors influencing women entrepreneurship and empowerment in Nepalese enterprises. The study showed a positive impact of access to finance on women empowerment. It indicates that financial support leads to higher level of women empowerment. Similarly, the study showed a positive impact of level of education on women empowerment. It indicates that higher the level of education, higher would be the women empowerment. Likewise, the study also revealed a positive impact of family and social support on women empowerment. It indicates that support from family and society helps to boost the morale of women empowerment. Further, the study observed a positive impact of technological skills on women empowerment. It indicates that technology skills help women to start their new venture. In addition, the study observed a negative impact of security issue on women empowerment. It indicates that the number of security issues (gender inequality, Violence against women, inequality in power and decision making etc.) are higher, lower would be the women empowerment.

Background Medical abortion is one of the WHO recommended methods for safe and effective first trimester abortion. It is often seen as an emancipating procedure allowing women to be more in control of their abortion, as opposed to surgical procedures where the surgery is “done to” the woman by a doctor. In countries where medical abortion is legal and available, rates of medical abortion (vs. surgical abortion) vary greatly, e.g. in Europe from 24% to 98%. We hypothesised that these differences may mirror how empowered women are in different aspects of their lives and be in part explained by gender (in)equality at the country level. Methods We conducted correlation and regression analyses to assess the association between medical abortion rates and gender inequality in Europe, using several macro-level markers of gender equality such as national gender equality indices and rates of violence against women. The relevance of other structural factors, such as health system and abortion care characteristics was also investigated. Results Seventeen countries were included. Although the sample size was small, results pointed toward an association between several markers of economic gender equality and medical abortion rates. The Gender Gap Index (corr. coeff: 0.52, p = 0.03) and its economic component (corr. coeff: 0.64, p = 0.005), as well as the economic component of the Gender Equity Index (corr. coeff: 0.68, p = 0.003), were all positively associated with the outcome. Other dimensions of gender equality (e.g. political participation; violence against women) and health system factors (e.g. date of introduction of the method; type of abortion providers) were not associated with the outcome. Conclusions Our results suggest that women's empowerment in the economic sphere may have repercussions on the use of abortion care, potentially influencing what method of abortion the women ask for and what method they are offered. Key messages Barriers to the use of medical abortion go beyond the law (if a method is legal/available or not) and include structural determinants, such as gender equality. Higher levels of economic gender equality are associated with higher rates of medical abortion, highlighting the relationship between gender equality and choice of method of abortion.

At Millennium Summit in September 2000 largest gathering of world leaders adopted UN Millennium Declaration, committing their nations a new global partnership reduce extreme poverty and setting out a series of time-bound targets, all with a deadline of 2015, that have become known as Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).2 In many ways, MDGs, eclipse goals and objectives of Beijing Platform of Action. Hence, I think of MDGs as Major Distraction Gimmicks - a distraction from much more important Beijing Platform for Action (BPA) with its 12 Priority Areas of Concern,3 which represent a much closer approximation of complexity of relationships between equality and women's empowerment (MDG Goal 3), and other MDGs and targets. In particular, these are: MDG 1: Eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, Universal primary education (MDG 2), Reducing child mortality (MDG 4), Improving maternal health (MDG 5), Combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases (MDG 6), and Ensuring environmental sustainability (MDG 7 (including Target 10, Access safe water). Nevertheless, MDGs are now part of an international development framework which many countries in Caribbean have signed on to. Thus this analysis addresses question of how they be made work promote equality and empowerment in Caribbean Community (CARICOM) region. The analysis here will not be limited gender equality and women's empowerment (MDG Goal 3). It will also highlight dimensions of some of other MDGs that are closely related women's equality and empowerment - as a means and as an outcome. Finally, analysis and suggestions in relation strategies to ensure that inequalities are identified and addressed in MDG monitoring process and in national policy responses from will focus on Caribbean realities, including my own experience of working in this field for over 30 years. Suggestions are made by drawing on findings and insights on linkages between global trends, development strategies (including macroeconomic policy framework of structural adjustment) and their impact on poor and ways in which we might now approach activist interventions toward goal of women's equality and empowerment. A General Critique of Millenium Development Goals First, what be said in favour of MDGs? As UNIFEM and many others point out, that MDGs be viewed within context of the new aid agenda. They provide a common framework agreed by all governments, complete with measurable targets and indicators of progress, around which governments, UN agencies, international finance institutions and civil society alike could rally. They provide a strategic talking point for assessing what barriers achievement of goals are, and provide a tool with which hold both donor agencies and governments accountable. (White, 2001, 2002, cited by Ramya Subrahmanian, 2002:3) Regarding goal on gender equality and empowerment of women, some would say it can be celebrated as symbolic of significant impact of feminist advocacy over years in making case for gender-aware development (Ramya Subrahmanian, 2002:1), despite fact that we know emptiness of rhetorical statements on 'gender.' On other hand, there is evidently widespread awareness of limitations of MDGs: * their inadequate targets and indicators; * their restriction indicators that are quantifiable when much of what is most important, such as women's equality and empowerment, is not easily quantifiable; * their omission of important goals and targets, such as violence against women and sexual and reproductive rights; * their silence on context and institutional environment in which they are be met. The Millenium Development Goals first came my attention in response exclusion of hard-won goal of women's sexual and reproductive rights from list of goals. …

This introduction to a special section describes how a recently developed measure, the project-level Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (pro-WEAI) can be used to assess empowerment impacts of agricultural development interventions in India and Bangladesh as well as broader changes in rural labor markets. The special section comprises three papers. The first examines the impact of membership in self-help groups in five states in rural India on women's and men's empowerment and gender equality. The second presents experimental evidence from a pilot project in Bangladesh that provided trainings in agricultural extension, nutrition behavior change communication, and gender sensitization to husbands and wives together. The third investigates changes in women's roles within the jute value chain in the Southern Delta region of Bangladesh as household members migrate out of the study area and the availability of male labor declines. Although these papers focus on Bangladesh and India, pro-WEAI can be applied to impact assessments of agricultural development projects more generally. The three papers show both the usefulness of this new measure in detecting changes in empowerment indicators within the lifespan of a project and the value of having explicit empowerment objectives in agricultural development projects. The papers also demonstrate the value of having data on both men and women so that project designers can be more intentional about including both of them and monitoring outcomes for both to promote more gender equitable outcomes.