Compiling a fencing legacy rooted in the teachings of Salvator Fabris<!-- notionvc: af930cef-bee4-45b0-8ae0-1e806977f7d6 -->

Purpose. This article's purpose is the reconstruction of the creation context of the fencing treatise «The Flower of Battle» and renew some fragments from the Italian fencing master's life in the late 14th century - early 15th centuries with visual sources. Methods. We have looked into three Italian manuscripts, using comparative, hermeneutic and prosopographic methods. Results. The Renaissance fencing treatises is the popular research object for twenty years. The Italian material arts studies are based on the treatise of Fiore dei Liberi «The Flower of Battle». This source is an important part of modern European martial arts research and 15th century combat practices. An analysis of the sources (text, iconographic elements and archival materials) allows us to present several versions of the Italian master Fiore dei Liberi’s private and professional life. First of all, our attention pays on the ideas that contributed to the combat system structure in the treatise «Il Fior di Battaglia». The careful work with the symbols which are inside of manuscript structure allowed us to identify new details. It will help to better understand both the context of the text writing and its creation motivation for the author. Conclusions. It is important to note the attempt to fill in the blanks only with help of visual sources requires additional reinforcement with writing sources. However, the investigation of such a plan allows us to expand the field for the successor fencing treatises. Also it introduces a new perspective on the well known facts and highlights those ones, which have been lost by attention of the previous researchers. The study about fencing masters personalities and the formation concept of martial arts allows us to better understand its place among 15th century military communities. It is possible to follow both the paths of all combat practices and the relations between the users of such an intellectual product as a fencing treatise through the social connections of the fencing master.

Since ancient times, the master-at-arms profession has always been considered essential for the education of the nobility and the common citizenship, especially in the Middle Ages. Yet, we know nothing about the real standard of living of these characters. The recent discovery of documents, which report the sums earned by fencing masters to teach combat disciplines, has brought us the possibility to estimate how highly this profession was regarded, and what its actual economic value was in the Italian late Middle Ages. They also give us also a material view into the modes of operation of a sala d’arme in those times. Using different comparative methods based on the quoted currencies, primary goods and the cost of living, it was possible to analyze prices and duration of various military teachings offered by the fencing Masters in the late Middle Ages and equivalent viable activities of the time. We use three ways to calculate equivalent income levels in euros: from the silver content of the coins (bolognini, equivalent to the soldo); from purchasing power in relation to bread prices; and from equivalent wages. As a result we were able to define more accurately both the accessibility of these services for citizens and the relative value to other professions. This cursory research study also aims to estimate approximately the current equivalent wages of a fencing master operating in the Italian peninsula in the 15th and early 16th century, confirming that this job was comparable to a modern, highly specialized, profession.

Since ancient times, the master-at-arms profession has always been considered essential for the education of the nobility and the common citizenship, especially in the Middle Ages. Yet, we know nothing about the real standard of living of these characters. The recent discovery of documents, which report the sums earned by fencing masters to teach combat disciplines, has brought us the possibility to estimate how highly this profession was regarded, and what its actual economic value was in the Italian late Middle Ages. They also give us also a material view into the modes of operation of a sala d’arme in those times. Using different comparative methods based on the quoted currencies, primary goods and the cost of living, it was possible to analyze prices and duration of various military teachings offered by the fencing Masters in the late Middle Ages and equivalent viable activities of the time. We use three ways to calculate equivalent income levels in euros: from the silver content of the coins (bolognini, equivalent to the soldo); from purchasing power in relation to bread prices; and from equivalent wages. As a result we were able to define more accurately both the accessibility of these services for citizens and the relative value to other professions. This cursory research study also aims to estimate approximately the current equivalent wages of a fencing master operating in the Italian peninsula in the 15th and early 16th century, confirming that this job was comparable to a modern, highly specialized, profession.

Claus Frederik Sørensen: A Late Middle Age German fencing master’s manuscript in the Royal Library. Ms. Thott 290 2° The Royal Library in Copenhagen houses a volume entitled Thott 290 2º Meister Hans Thalhofer: Alte Armatur und Ringkunst. It is a richly illustrated, Late Middle Age German manuscript dated 1459. The manuscript was produced at the request of the German fencing master Hans Talhoffer and contains information on the art of fencing, the art of war, and legal duelling. Thott 290 2º consists of 150 sheets. Paper is the material used and the sheets measure 30 cm × 21 cm. The text in the manuscript has been written with red and black ink; the illustrations have been painted and are boldly outlined. Both the text and the illustrations have been professionally produced and are of high technical quality. Thott 290 2º seems to be a combination of a sales catalogue and a knowledge bank and falls within the genre of fencing manuscripts that, as late as the 1400s, dealt with a deadly art, as can well be seen in the manuscript’s many gory and macabre illustrations. There are 66 known German Middle Age and Renaissance fencing manuscripts, of which a list is given at the end of this article. Most of these manuscripts are based on verses that describe an ideology of fencing developed by Johannes Liechtenauer, a fencing master in the 1300s. This fencing ideology, written by the fencing master in verse form, later became the foundation for subsequent German fencing masters’ teaching, including that of Hans Talhoffer. The manuscript Thott 290 2º contains a wide variety of knowledge, presented either with the help of illustrations or described by text. The manuscript thus constitutes an invaluable source of information concerning a forgotten European Middle Age martial art on a level with what today is known from China and Japan.

Fencing Master Early Advocate of Physical Education

INTRODUCTION The roots of the physical therapist education reach back through the ages. The development of physical therapy as an autonomous profession based on current scientific knowledge was in large part due to Per Henrik Ling of Sweden. In 1813, he founded the Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics (RCIG) in Stockholm for the training of gymnastic instructors. With the founding of RCIG, Ling provided a professional identity for the physical therapist. Thereafter, physical therapist education evolved in different ways around the world. In the United Kingdom, it was through the Society of Trained Masseuses. In Norway and Finland, it was influenced by the work of Ling, with an emphasis on massage training. In the United States, it was as a result of the polio epidemics and the need to treat those wounded during World War I. The World Confederation for Physical Therapy (WCPT) has established standards and guidelines for physical therapist entrylevel education that are globally relevant and available to all on its Web site. They include the "WCPT Policy Statement: Education" and the 5 WCPT guidelines related to physical therapist professional entry-level education ("WCPT Guidelines for Physical Therapist Professional Entry-Level Education"; "WCPT Guideline for Qualifications of Faculty for Physical Therapist Professional Entry-level Education Programs"; "WCPT Guideline for the Clinical Education Component of Physical Therapist Professional Entry-level Education"; "WCPT Guideline for Curricula for Physical Therapists Delivering Quality Exercise Programs Across the Life Span"; and "Guideline for a Standard Evaluation Process for Accreditation/Recognition of Physical Therapist Professional Entry-level Education Program"). Consideration of physical therapist education across member organizations in each of the 5 WCPT regions clearly demonstrates that major diversity exists in physical therapist entry-level professional education around the world. THE ROOTS The roots of the profession of physical therapy may have begun as early as 3,000 BC, with evidence that the Chinese practiced massage. Hippocrates (460-377 BC) made reference to friction massage.1 The use of therapeutic exercise and massage in the 16th century occurred when the Greeks realized that physical health and spiritual health were inseparable. An Italian physician, Gerolamo Mercuriale, used exercise both hygienically and curatively in the 1500s.2 In Sweden in the early 19th century, Pehr Henrik Ling combined massage and rhythmic exercises for health benefits.3 In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, there are references to correcting childhood deformities with splinting, massage, and prosthetics; treating patients with a stroke by reawakening the weakened control of the brain through motion; and using a regime of gymnastics and massage to treat scoliosis.4 BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICAL THERAPIST EDUCATION IN SWEDEN The profession of physical therapy developed in Sweden first as an autonomous profession based on the scientific knowledge of the day due to Pehr Henrik Ling (Figure 1), who has been called the "Father of Swedish Gymnastics." Ling, originally a graduate of the Vãxjö gymnasium (1792) and a fencing master, went on to study theology at Lund and Uppsala Universities. While traveling abroad after graduation, he met a Chinese individual (Ming) who instructed Ling in martial arts and tui na. Ling acquired further knowledge in England, Germany, and France that expanded Ming's special "gymnastics" or exercises and were aimed at enhancing stamina, strength, and flexibility—requisites for Ling's fencing. Ling returned to Sweden as a result of overuse injuries and "rheumatism" and healed himself using the exercises that he had acquired. He was appointed as a fencing master at Uppsala. Appreciating how the exercises had restored his health, he understood the importance of using exercises for the health of others. Thus, Ling began studies of anatomy and physiology and eventually completed the doctor (meaning "physician" at this time) training curriculum. He categorized his system of gymnastics, exercises, and maneuvers into 4 specific areas: medical (physical therapy), military (primarily fencing), pedagogical (physical education), and aesthetic. Ling then attempted to garner the support of the Swedish government for his approach, which was not immediately forthcoming. Finally, in 1813, he founded the Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics (RCIG) in Stockholm for the training of gymnastic instructors with the cooperation of the Swedish government.5Figure 1. Pehr Henrik LingAlthough there were other European contemporaries involved in the early days of the profession of physical therapy, it was Ling who is credited with creating the identity of the physical therapist. With the founding of RCIG, Ling provided not only a professional identity for the physical therapist, but also the first formally state-sanctioned education program. Until about 1827, RCIG also was the only institution that offered education and also mechanical treatments.6 The examination that students took in the early days upon completion of the RCIG program covered the 3 areas of medical, military, and pedagogical learning, and these men were then capable of working outside of their regiments as physical therapists and physical educators. The title given to those who passed the examination was "Director of Gymnastics," and they were in charge of an institute curing sick people with the use of physical therapy. In 1887, Sweden's National Board of Health and Welfare officially sanctioned these directors and allowed them to apply for authorization from their Board.6 Of interest is the fact that the profession in Sweden was originally one for men who were noblemen or a member of the upper bourgeoisie, and women did not become part of the profession until 1864. Male students had to possess an officer's degree or equivalent for admission to RCIG, whereas female students had only to complete compulsory school. In addition, the education for male students was 3 years in length, whereas the education for female students was only 2 years since women were not required to take military gymnastics. For qualified doctors, the education was only 1 year.6 Graduates of the RCIG program spread out to present their new science of physical therapy that cured and prevented diseases and disabilities to lay audiences, physicians in many other countries, and to many health spas and resorts throughout the 20th century. This new model of "mechanical Medicine/medical Gymnastics" attracted many to RCIG, including Lieutenant Jonas Henrik Kellgren from London. His son-in-law, Edgar F. Cyriax, was an RCIG-trained physician in London whose medical degree thesis was titled, "The Elements of Kellgren's Manual Treatment." Kellgren's grandson was James Cyriax, who physical therapists recognize and is credited as the founder of orthopedic medicine.6 In 1864, RCIG underwent a major reorganization, which led to its monopoly on the education of physical therapists. Even the government in Sweden declared that in order to practice physical therapy, anyone, including MDs, had to pass the official RCIG examination. Thus, for a doctor to become a specialist in physical therapy (doctors of gymnastics/physical therapy), they had to complete the gymnastics/physical therapy training at RCIG.6 It also must be noted that for almost 100 years (1830s-1940s), major conflicts existed between Swedish physical therapists and physicians, especially orthopedists. The overlap of mechanical interventions was apparent, and resolutions of the conflicts did not really occur until the orthopedists "took up the knife" in place of mechanical medicine.6 In 1934, a Swedish physician, Patrik Haglund (Figure 2), divided the education of physical therapists into 2: physical educators and physical therapists. The Carolingian Institute, the new name for the RCIG, became responsible for physical therapist education. Physical therapists no longer received education in physical education, and physical educators no longer received education in physical therapy. The faculty of medicine at the Carolingian Institute was responsible for the education of physical therapists and compulsory education was all that was required for admission to the physical therapist program. On the other hand, physical educators had to possess qualifications that were equivalent to those for admission to the university. Thus, physical education became superior to physical therapy, requiring 2 years of education, whereas physical therapist education was only 1½ years. The scientific basis of physical therapy also was minimized by Patrik Haglund. Haglund was one of the early orthopedic surgeons in Sweden and held the first chair in orthopedics in 1913. He was a part of the early group of young surgeons who broke away from mechanical medicine. Haglund did not want men, particularly men of the upper class, to become physical therapists. He felt women would not have the same aspirations as men and would therefore act less autonomously. This sad portion of education history in Sweden is probably no different than what happened in other parts of the world. In Sweden, almost 100 years of a strong physical therapy history and identity seemed to have been lost.6Figures 2 and 3: Outpatient therapy in the Polyclinic of the Royal Central Institute of GymnasticsFigure 4. Patrik HaglundCurrently, the Swedish association has their own education department. There are 7 physical therapist schools in the country, graduating about 550 students per year. The physical therapist education is a 3-year program that leads to a Bachelor of Science Degree. Opportunities for continuing education exist, including pursuit of master's and doctoral degrees.7 BEGINNINGS OF PT EDUCATION IN THE UNITED KINGDOM By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the profession began to come into its own in many parts of the world. In the United Kingdom, the Society of Trained Masseuses, composed of trained nurses, established a certification program for massage. The required exam consisted of anatomy and theory questions, and a practical massage on a living model. Along with the massage certification program, training programs for nurses were primarily in hospital-based programs. In 1900, the society became the Incorporated Society of Trained Masseuses (ISTM).8 As early as 1903, training and examination in remedial exercises based on those used in Sweden became a course offered to members of the ISTM at the Chelsea Physical Training College. In 1910, a full examination was given in Swedish remedial exercises under the auspices of the ISTM. In 1913, all students who prepared for the massage examination actually had to see and provide treatment to patients in hospitals, infirmaries, or their equivalent. New schools in London (including the Swedish Institute and Clinque, the Training College for Massage and Remedial Gymnastics, and the Swedish Training Schools for Remedial Exercises and Massage) opened under the auspices of women doctors that trained students for the examination in Swedish remedial exercises.8 With the outbreak of World War I, Britain's surgeon general established a corps of 50 certified masseuses. In the ensuing 4 years, the corps maintained a supply of trained personnel, but the standard of training was fraught with difficulties. In 1915, lectures and demonstrations on medical electricity were added by the ISTM, and the first examination in medical electricity was given in that same year. In June of 1920, the ISTM became "The Chartered Society of Massage and Medical Gymnastics." Throughout the 1920s, the Society attempted to raise the standard of training for its members. By 1927, one could not sit for the massage examination alone, but had to hold the dual qualification in massage and Swedish remedial exercises to become a member of the Society.7 In the 1930s, the Society also added light, electrotherapy, and hydrotherapy to the certification examination.8 During the next decade, a new, lengthened, more academic curriculum was developed. Interestingly, some of the specialized areas of work of Society members at this time included maternity exercises, training after amputation, work with slings and pulleys, exercises for chest conditions, treatment of paralysis, return-to-work exercise programs, and dexterity exercises for hands. In 1942, the Society changed its name to the "Chartered Society of Physiotherapy."8 After World War II, education in the training schools was extended to 3 academic years and teachers' training was revised. The Society provided refresher courses for its members returning from battlefronts. Three new schools for both male and female students received Society approval, and 3 existing schools for women allowed men to enter.8 The evolution of physical therapist education in the United Kingdom parallels the establishment of the profession and its education in Australia and in many of the other historically British colonies.3 The School of Physiotherapy at the University of Otago in New Zealand was founded in 1913. Currently, 35 physical therapist schools thrive in the United Kingdom, with about 1,700 students enrolled per year. The physical therapy course of study varies. In England, the program is 3 years in length (with a minimum of 3,000 hours). In Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, the program is 4 years in length, with studies resulting in a BSc (Hons) degree. Students have the opportunity for further study at both master's degree and PhD levels.7 BEGINNINGS OF PT EDUCATION IN OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES Norway The evolution of physical therapy in Norway is linked to Swedish history and was closely aligned with the development of orthopedics in Norway. Simultaneous to the birth of the orthopedic tradition in Norway, Ling founded his RCIG in Sweden, and Swedish graduates of Ling's program brought medical gymnastics to Norway. The establishment of the first orthopedic institute occurred in Norway in 1838. Approximately 9 years later, the third physician in charge of the orthopedic institute also was a graduate of the RCIG in Stockholm, Sweden. Under his influence, the orthopedic institute in Oslo paved the way for physical therapist education in Norway, which formally began in 1897 (written communication, M. Haneborg and V. Rekv, June 2011). While massage remained an important part of the physical therapist's education, the profession retained its distinct designation as "physiotherapists" and not masseurs. As early as 1916, the Norwegian Medical Association established a council that authorized graduates to exercise their profession as physical therapists and masseurs. In 1936, public authorization was granted to physical therapists educated at any institution approved by the Ministry. Legislation in 1956 gave physical therapists the right to practice their profession as "physiotherapists and Mensendieck therapists." In 1976, the first state physical therapist educational institution opened in Bergen, Norway's second-largest city. Physical therapist education institutions were granted college status in 1982 (written communication, M. Haneborg and V. Rekv, June 2011). Currently, 5 physical therapist schools exist in Norway, graduating about 300 students per year. Physical therapist education in Norway is a 3-year diploma course at a physical therapist college. In addition, mandatory supervised clinical practice of 1 year is required, elevating the level of education. Postgraduate physical therapist education exists in Norway at the master's degree.7 Finland The beginning of physical therapist education in Finland resembles Sweden and Norway, but with significant differences. The first private education and medical gymnastic institute was started in 1869 in Helsinki to educate female teachers. In 1882, medical gymnastics was an elective and later obligatory subject for gymnastic teachers' education at the University of Helsinki. In 1908, medical gymnastic education spanned 3 years and was based on Ling's model of physical therapist education in Sweden (written communication, K. Partanen and M. Keskinen, May 2011). Surprisingly, medical gymnastic education was abolished in 1942; however, the end of the Finnish Winter War (1939-1940) and the ongoing World War II (1941-1944) were creating a need for rehabilitation for the war wounded. The Finnish defense forces held quick courses for masseurs to help to meet the pressing need for rehabilitation of those injured in the wars. The Finnish Society of Physiotherapists was established in 1943, with its first objective to begin education programs again. Development of Finnish legislation in 1945 and 1946 concerning the profession of physical therapy improved physical therapists' education, duties, and rights (written communication, K. Partanen and M. Keskinen, May 2011). Finally in 1945, the college of medical gymnastics was established at Invalidisäätiö (a foundation established in 1940 to organize the treatment, rehabilitation, and education of people who had been disabled in the Winter War). While re-establishing physical therapist education was an important milestone in Finland at this time, it did shift the program from university-level to college-level education. Admittance to the program required at least a secondary school background. Key areas of study were orthopedics and war injuries. From the 1960s on, education programs developed in other Finnish cities. Education occurred within nursing colleges during that time, and eventually moved to the polytechnic school system in the 1990s. Physiotherapy strengthened its position in the academic world as an independent scientific discipline and secured the continuity of a universitybased education.10 (written communication, K. Partanen and M. Keskinen, May 2011. Currently, 17 physical therapist schools exist in Finland, with 380-420 new students per year. The physical therapist education is at the higher level in the polytechnic schools. Graduates earn an academic degree/diploma after 3½ years of studies (5,600 hours), which corresponds to 140 Finnish credit units. The Finnish Physical Therapy Association follows the planning, content, and implementation of entry-level professional education in physical therapy in order to ensure, among other things, that the education provided meets international criteria. Continuing education and master's and doctoral degree levels of education are available.7 BEGINNINGS OF PT EDUCATION IN THE US In contrast to the history elsewhere, the history of physical therapist education in the United States followed a slightly different developmental course. Physical therapy origins evolved around 2 major historical events: the poliomyelitis epidemics within the United States in the 1890s and the effects of World War I upon US citizens, creating a need for rehabilitation. The latter, as previously noted, also was an impetus to the development of physical therapist practice and physical therapist education in Europe. Prior to World War I, support for those with disabilities in the US had been growing gradually at both the private and governmental levels. A report from the Division of Orthopedic Surgery of the Medical Department of the United States Army in the 1920s called for the establishment of hospitals for the reconstruction of soldiers with disabilities.11 The physiotherapy section of the US Army report indicated the need for massage and mechanical hydrotherapy, and more importantly, for a national training corps of personnel (therapists). The report11 suggested that the personnel be drawn from schools of physical training and allied therapies. As a follow-up, several schools were chosen: the Boston School for Physical Education; the New Haven Normal School in Connecticut; the Normal School for Physical Education in Battle Creek, Michigan; Posse Normal in Boston, Massachusetts; the Teacher's Physical Education Program at Oberlin College, Ohio; and the Physical Education Department of Leland University in The report also suggested that schools standards and that the be reconstruction After the United States World War I, of orthopedics at and of the War of the Orthopedic the British system of treating the a system by and were to by the surgeon general to how the were in and their to the United States, they developed a to meet the of the US wounded at the The by and established 2 different of reconstruction group was to the physicians as reconstruction therapists and provide exercise programs, hydrotherapy and other and massage for these The other group had been working in and since about the and they were as reconstruction who had been working with established a training program for reconstruction at to the program. who was in the United States but in after the of had completed a degree in physical and this study went to London for special courses in and and a position in a With the outbreak of World War I, returned to the United In took a of from the Army to 2 of reconstruction at College in a program that was started in By these 2 programs were by other professional education programs to to meet the of those with war consisted of exercises (including exercises, exercises, and massage, and The first of the Association occurred in New on and was the first While the profession was originally composed of women and the association was established by in the association changed its name to the Physiotherapy Association in of the male reconstruction who during the war in In 1934, required members to have from an approved school of completed an approved course in physical therapy for physical education and nursing and completed 1 practice within 2 years of In due to the of physical therapy physicians to the Physiotherapy Association took the opportunity to officially its name to the Physical Therapy in the first the Schools began to The of the physical therapist from that of a to that of a professional Thus, during this physical therapist education was by both hospital-based and programs. Interestingly, education was primarily at the requiring 3 years of college for admission and 9 of physical therapist education. with the first 2 programs, and education programs to in and to by From the late to the late physical therapists in the United States moved from hospital-based programs to academic with in physical therapist education and of clinical In the physical therapist degree program required credit for In there were programs in the US physical therapist education. By of these programs were at the degree level and at the master's degree The for physical therapist education programs required the degree in The the Physical Therapy Association of the position that entry-level education for the physical therapist be a of the physical therapist education programs were at the master's degree New were in that required a degree by for entry-level programs. Of the physical therapist education programs at that time, were at the were at the master's degree and were at the of Physical Therapy The of the degree programs to the degree in The of physical therapist entrylevel professional education to the degree level in the US occurred from The first 4 programs University of and New were between and By of the programs were at the and the new of the on of Physical Therapy Education that the was the As of of physical therapist entry-level professional education programs are at the of those programs that are not at the level are in the of has added a as of only programs that the be While the history of physical therapist education around the world and the World Confederation for Physical Therapy (WCPT) has to standards to educational programs in an to the of the around the world. WCPT Policy Statement: Education that WCPT a of in that was in and changed to a Policy with in WCPT Policy PT Guidelines From through as a result of from member organizations during the general the WCPT developed a of guidelines to the of education in physical therapist professional entry-level education. The guidelines were developed for and with from member organizations of The was that they may be used by physical therapy and education programs not exist and the profession is not WCPT that different use the guidelines to on their WCPT member organizations and program may and the guidelines within the of their to the education the guidelines are to Currently, 5 guidelines related to physical therapist professional entry-level education have been WCPT Guidelines for Physical Therapist Professional Entry-Level Education; WCPT Guidelines for Qualifications of Faculty for Physical Therapist Professional Entry-level Education WCPT Guidelines for the Clinical Education Component of Physical Therapist Professional Entry-level Education; WCPT Guidelines for Curricula for Physical Therapists Delivering Quality Exercise Programs Across the Life and Guideline for a Standard Evaluation Process for Accreditation/Recognition of Physical Therapist Professional Entry-level Education WCPT Guidelines for Physical Therapist Professional Entry-Level As a result of a by the to the WCPT in the WCPT the of guidelines for professional education with from member organizations around the world. 2 including the audiences, and of these 2: WCPT Guidelines for Physical Therapist Professional Entry-Level full "WCPT Guidelines for Physical Therapist Professional Entry-Level Education" the areas in with provided in each see this by to and 3: WCPT Guidelines for Physical Therapist Professional Entry-Level WCPT Guideline for Qualifications of Faculty for Physical Therapist Professional Entry-Level Education This on qualifications of faculty was to support member organizations on the WCPT for physical therapist professional entry-level education through the development of physical therapist professional entry-level programs. It was to the WCPT as a reference The Guideline the need of faculty members to their students from a

Following a long mercenary tradition, Switzerland had to build in the 19th century its own military tradition. In Cantons that have provided many officers and soldiers in the European Foreign Service, the French military influence remained strong. This article aims to analyze the development of sabre fencing in the canton of Fribourg (and its French influence) through the manuals of a former mercenary (Joseph Bonivini), a fencing master in the federal troops (Joseph Tinguely), and an officer who became later a gymnastics teacher (Léon Galley). These fencing manuals all address the recourse to fencing as physical training and gymnastic exercise, and not just as a combat system in a warlike context.

In this study we present an important and interesting period in the history of Islam in Hungary in the 20th century, the past of the Islamic community in Budapest between the two world wars, which was mainly composed of Bosniaks. Special emphasis will be placed on the life of the community's imam, Husein Hilmi Durić , ‘Grand Mufti’ of Buda and former Military Imam, his domestic and international activities on behalf of the community, and the Hungarian supporters, friends and helpers of the Bosniaks. There is also a brief description of a few other members of the community. The Hungarian Islamic Community , founded in 1988 and still functioning as an established church in Hungary, claims as its legal predecessor the Independent Hungarian Autonomous Islamic Religious Community of Buda, named after Gül Baba, which operated de facto between 1931 and 1945. In our study, we describe in detail how Bosnian soldiers who fought valiantly in the Austro-Hungarian monarchy's army in the First World War found their way to Hungary after the war, how they found a new home, mostly in Budapest, how they started their lives again, choosing mostly Hungarian wives and quickly learning Hungarian language and customs. But soon the practice of Islam became indispensable for them, and that is why the first Islamic community in Hungary was founded in 1931. The adventurous life of the community's leader, Husein Hilmi Durić, is described in detail, along with his extensive activities in Hungary and his domestic and international contacts. Similarly, we describe the activities of influential Hungarian supporters of the community (e.g. Andor Medriczky, Gyula Germanus, István Bárczy) who selflessly helped Bosnian Muslims to practice their faith in Hungary. We look at the two major trips of the community leaders to the Middle East and India to strengthen Islam in Hungary and to raise funds for the planned mosque in Buda, which never materialised. Durić's special relationship with the Albanian King Zogu, his travels to Tirana and his programmes are also discussed in more detail. Nor can we ignore the unfortunate fact that in the 1930s and 1940s, during the Christian Nationalist Horthy era, many people did not look kindly on the activities of Bosnian Muslims living in Hungary. We then turn to the life and activities of another community leader, Mehmed Resulović, as a fencing master. We will also outline how an average Bosniak lived, what he did, how he spent his everyday life, how he dressed and how he entertained himself in Hungary in the 1930s and 1940s, far from his homeland. We also discuss, of course, how some of them became involved in Hungarian politics, as members of far-right organisations and movements, possibly because they were invited to join these circles by their former Hungarian officers and comrades in arms of First World War. Finally, we outline the life of an average Bosnian Muslim, Hasan Jamaković, who had a typical career in Hungary.

High Table-Talk Sam Pickering (bio) Robert Benson , Wedding the Wild Particular. Texas Review Press, 2012. 224 pages. $20.95 pb; Joseph Epstein , Essays in Biography. Axios Press, 2012. xii + 564 pages. Illustrated. $24; Philip Gerard , The Patron Saint of Dreams. Hub City Press, 2012. xiv + xiv pages. $17.95 pb; David George Haskell , The Forest Unseen. Penguin, 2013. xiv + xiv pages. $16 pb; Richard O'Mara , The Street Where They Lived. Alondra Press, 2011. 140 pages. $12.95 pb; Peter Ryan , It Strikes Me. Quadrant Books, 2011. 314 pages. $44.95; Ridley Wills II , Nashville Streets & Their Stories. Plumbline Media, 2012. xii + xii pages. Illustrated. No price provided, pb. "There is something almost indecent," Cunningham Graham declares, "in setting forth all a man thinks and feels, without an explanation or at least a prelude of some sort. A fencing master goes through the salute, a jockey takes a preliminary canter, even divines resort to incantations of some kind before they fall a-preaching." Essays in Biography is an anthology of Joseph Epstein's occasional reviews—usually of biographies, letters, and sometimes critical books. Epstein divides the book into sections devoted to Americans, Englishmen, popular culture, as well as "And Others." The book, however, lacks and needs an introduction. Certainly prefaces confine and distort, but they also explain and place better than basket-like words that lack real bottoms. Epstein is primarily intrigued by New Yorkers, Jewish writers, cultural entrepreneurs, and the chatty English, these last always on the verge of writing great books but who specialize in shaping small memorable put-downs. He does not, for example, discuss any southern American writers. Of course the content of the book is not a failing but simply reflects an author's choice. Inclination should determine reading and writing, but good introductions probe and reveal—and often deepen enjoyment. Essays is a once-a-night, once-a-week book, attractive primarily to flagging thinkers—aging magazine people interested in culture but who lack the energy or curiosity to read a bookshelf-bending biography. Epstein is quick with the quip, and his essays provide kernels of intellectual nourishment. "Talking," Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote, "is like playing on the harp; there is as much in laying the hands on the strings to stop their vibrations as in twanging them to bring out their music." Essays is composed of high table-talk, wit recollected in tranquility, the sorts of remarks that one wishes he had made in conversation but that appear only on the page. Cyril Connolly, Epstein writes, "had a taste—a propensity?, an aptitude?—for failure that [End Page 630] never left him." "Susan Sontag, as F. R. Leavis said of the Sitwells, belongs less to the history of literature than to that of publicity." "Arthur Schlesinger will probably go down in history as an unregenerate publicist for a line of progressive ideas that by the late 20th century would lose their hold on the imagination of many Americans." Maurice Bowra, Epstein writes, "was a thoroughly social being, lonely as only a deeply gregarious bachelor can be, a man by nature, of the group, the clique, the coterie." What makes Epstein appealing, yet, strangely enough, irritating, is that his judgments are usually right. Sontag is a caffeinated regional taste fast becoming stale. Connolly's pangs of mediocrity bore rather than intrigue readers, and Schlesinger has shrunk into a wilted Kennedy hierophant. Alas, the description of Bowra makes me wince, as I suspect it will make many aged readers wince—that is, those social beings among us who have slipped from almost all groups into loneliness. Epstein is a master of quotation. Of Hugh Trevor-Roper he notes that Bowra declared that the historian "had never known adultery to do so much for a man." Trevor-Roper, Epstein himself writes, "suffered fools not at all, and one had only to disagree with him to qualify as a fool. What must have made this all the more infuriating is that he seems to have been correct much of the time." Like a diamond, bright snappy prose does not chip easily and resists sharp argument—the source perhaps of my irritation with Epstein. Of course, I...

This article examines the life of a prolific but somewhat unheralded ethnographer, the researcher of village and settlement history Gea Troska (1926–2015), attempting to provide a hitherto lacking overview. Her work as ethnographer largely coincided with the Soviet era: she began her ethnography studies in 1945 and retired in 1996. The article looks at the opportunities and choices that a researcher in the Estonian SSR had, which societal and scientific processes she was engaged with, and what influence these processes had on her research. The articles draws on Troska’s numerous works, in both published and manuscript form, as well as museum and archive collections and an interview given in 2007. Troska was born in Tallinn in 1926. Her father was the public servant Hugo Reiman and the family was known for its broad cultural interests and activity in society. Her youth was spent in the woody garden town of Nõmme just outside Tallinn, she was well-educated and had a fairly solid patriotic upbringing. In 1945, in occupied Estonia, Troska entered Tartu State University to study ethnography. Like many institutions at that time, it was in the process of being Sovietized. Her principal teachers there were Harri Moora and Ants Viires. After graduating, she was accepted to the degree programme at the Institute of History in the recently established Academy of Sciences system. She was assigned to the Moscow Institute of Ethnography where her supervisor was the well-known ethnographer Nikolai Cheboksarov. Troska’s chosen research topic was family life in the 19th and 20th century but the work she started was soon cut short when in 1952 she was expelled from the party and the doctoral programme due to accusations of an ideological nature. Her expulsion from the Academy of Sciences system prevented her from pursuing her desired avenue of research. Two decades of work at museums followed: at the Tallinn City Museum in 1953–1960 (including as director from 1955), and at the newly established Open Air Museum in 1960–1971 (as research director from 1970). The role of a research employee at the museum involved collections and exhibitions, while she continued academic research out of her own personal interest and dedication. She chose a new research topic, the history of settlement with a focus on the 19th century, which she was able to pursue based on map materials hitherto not used in this context. The Soviet system did give her one quite extraordinary opportunity: to participate in the establishment of the Open Air Museum and its exhibition, for which extensive research and field work in the field of rural architecture was required. She was also a keen photographer and a large number of photographs taken by her during field work can be found in the collections of Estonian museums. In 1971, Troska returned to the Institute of History, where she devoted herself to scientific research and defended her Candidate of Sciences degree in 1974. Her decades-long research into Estonian settlement was encapsulated in a monograph published only in 1987, on the topic of Estonian villages in the 19th century, but she also produced several dozen research articles (some studies remained only in manuscript form), contributed to general volumes on history and ethnography, compiled both histories of villages and regions as well as methodological materials for local historians. In the 1960s and 1970s, she conducted research for a corresponding volume of the Baltic historical and ethnographic atlas, which unfortunately was never published. She worked at the Institute of History until her retirement in 1996, and was considered one of the premier experts on the history of settlement in Estonia.

The topic of this study is public art in Europe at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The author thoroughly examines the formation of theoretical concepts of European public art and their practical application in public spaces. The research shows that the period from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of World War I was key for the practice of public art, its organizational development, and international relations, which contributed to the global recognition of public art. The concept of public art emerged during this period with the aim of defining, protecting, and disseminating "public interests in art," with typical practices tending to emphasize social aesthetic responsibility and local features. Subsequently, various interpretations of "public interest" by elites, policymakers, various actors, and the public led to a diversification of public art practices and public understanding. Special attention is given to the formation, development, and impact of European public art, as well as Europe's contribution to public art research. The research methodology includes an analysis of historical sources, a critical review of literature, and case studies on selected examples of public art in various European countries. The results of the study show: an analysis of historical documents related to the inception of the term "public art" revealed that public art in Europe at the turn of the 19th to 20th centuries had a guiding influence on public art practice worldwide and on international relations, and there is even reason to believe that the concept of "public art" as a widely accepted idea originated at that time. The novelty of the research lies in the fact that previously, scholars studying the theme of "public art" often relied on American theories or the concepts of public art from the time of Roosevelt's New Deal, overlooking the influence of Europe on the development of "public art." The author proposes and emphasizes the importance of Europe's contribution to the development, practice, and influence of the concept of "public art."

Statement of the problem. The desire to comprehend the numerous challenges of cultural and artistic interaction between different cultures is one of the main tasks of our time, marked by the ideas of global understanding and tolerance. Among artistic searches by Ukrainian musicians, an important place is occupied by the appeal to the Eastern type of meditation, which is not typical of Western academic music of the past centuries, but at the same time is in tune with the contemplative aspects of the Christian worldview. Creating a new and very interesting national image of a geographically distant world, engaging in a creative dialogue with the versatility of ancient and modern poetry, religion, philosophy, fine arts and other artistic forms of different eras, the Ukrainian composers not only enrich and renew their creative experience, but also discover new approaches to understanding both, ancient and modern traditions and trends. Resent research and publications. In the last decades, the productive sphere of cross-cultural analysis and communication has been expanded to include such a specific problem as the embodiment of meditation in contemporary Ukrainian music as a principle, phenomenon, and way of experiencing the world. The monograph by L. Shapovalova (2007) is devoted to the understanding of the phenomena of musical reflection, where meditative states are associated with the personification and representation of the artist’s image. Related terms – “meditation”, “reflection” and derivatives of them – are contained in the works of O. Zinkevych (2002), O. Guzhva (2007), V. Redia (2010), they are purposefully involved in the analysis of author’s styles by I. Krainska (2012), A. Kamenieva (2018; 2020), N. Kostiuk (2024), A. Mizitova and I. Ivanova (2020). It is natural that the Ukrainian scientific base is founded on data accumulated in world practice. The sources of creative experiments that become material for study, although rooted in many layers of protoUkrainian spirituality, are in most cases associated by researchers with Eastern and, partly, with Western philosophical and cultural phenomena. Confirmation of this is found in the work “The Diversity of Meditative Experience” (1977) by the famous American researcher of Buddhist meditation problems Daniel Goleman. Among the prototypes of musical meditation, the scientist points to Hindu bhakti, Jewish Kabbalah, Christian hermeneutics, Islamic Sufism, transcendental meditation, Patanjali Ashtanga Yoga, Indian Tantra and Kundalini Yoga, Tibetan Buddhism, Japanese Zen, Georgy Gurdjieff’s “fourth way”, and Jiddu Krishnamurti’s “unconditional awareness. Objectives, methods and novelty of the research. The purpose of the article is to highlight the phenomena of the creative and scientific contexts that influenced the emergence of meditative concepts in modern Ukrainian music. The scientific novelty of the chosen topic is due to the lack of musicological works that clarify the specifics of meditativeness as a stylistic factor in the work of Ukrainian composers of the last third of the 20th – 21st centuries. The article offers an updated view of the development of meditation as a specific component of the work by Ukrainian composers of this time, which was formed in the process of reception of worldview concepts of different origins, in particular, the reflection of Eastern concepts of meditation in Western academic music. To identify the specific characteristics of the phenomenon and concept of “meditativeness” in the Ukrainian composers’ output of abovementiond period, historical-typological and genre-stylistic methods were employed as instruments of a systematic approach. Research results. The comprehension of meditation as a feature of musical art and its manifestations in each particular work – especially when it comes to Ukrainian music, which seems to be far from Eastern roots – puts a request for a deep personal comprehension of various aspects of this experience. It is personal awareness, somehow revealed in the composer’s works, that becomes the key in this process. The next step is to comprehend the very phenomenon of meditation (Latin “meditatio”, from “meditor” – meditating) in its most common interpretations: as reflection, contemplation or focused self-knowledge aimed at achieving spiritual enlightenment. Some scholars emphasize the consequences of the metaphorical nature of the concept of “meditation”. In particular, they note the difficulties in applying intellectual reflection to academic music, as well as the tendency for the term itself to become a universal cliché. There are also different positions in Ukrainian musicology. The difference between these approaches is explained not so much by the methodology as by the historical ways of forming meditation in European art and, in particular, in the Ukrainian musical tradition. In Ukrainian music, the approach to a modern understanding of meditation took place in parallel with the process of intellectualizing emotional reflections that began in the 19th century. Approaches to meditation in Ukrainian music are closely intertwined with the integration of “Eastern” philosophical, aesthetic, and artistic influences into its space. However, there are few examples of the composer works directly related to the cultures and arts of the Far East in Ukrainian music of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In the last third of the20th century, a new wave of interest in meditation was unfolding. It brought a significant renewal to the sphere of “reflection,” in fact, completely changing its meaning. Conclusion. Meditative musical concepts, based on various national sources, corresponding spatiotemporal representations, in particular regarding the passage of time, specific intonation, offer not so much an original image of a geographically distant world in content, as they create a special feeling of an unusual reality. Systematization by chronology of interesting experimental works has shown that meditation is understood by the authors both as a separate genre, the semantics of which is determined by the name (reflection, thought, spiritual state), and as a component of a synthetic genre (cycle), and as a concept of style. The performance compositions of the works demonstrate the absence of any restrictions in building the sound universe of intonation-timbre, coloristic or sonorous compositions with the genre name “meditation”, and their conceptual layer indicates the influence of the postmodern cultural and artistic paradigm. Genre-style embodiments of the author’s concepts of meditativeness are interesting for their combination of established and original features, the activity of extra-musical influences, and the context of intercultural interaction.

The purpose of this article is to consider the peculiarities of the reflection of the city – its architecture and inhabitants – in the works of Chernivtsi artists of the 20th and early 21st century, to analyze the differences between their views on the reproduction of urban motifs. The methodology consists in the application of the historical-chronological method, art analysis, and generalization, comparative and systematic approach. The scientific novelty lies in the introduction into scientific circulation of works by artists of the specified time, in understanding the evolution in the reflection of the city in the works of authors with various artistic orientations. Conclusions. In the paintings and graphics of the 20th – 21st centuries, several options for solving urban landscapes can be defined, among which the most common is a careful reflection of existing architectural monuments. In the 19th century in European art, in particular in Impressionist painting, the desire to convey not only the appearance but above all the spirit of the city became noticeable, depicting the townspeople, emphasizing the bustle or poetry of squares and streets. At the turn of the 20th-21st centuries the artists are no longer limited to the usual fixation of what is seen, but try to create a conceptual image of the city, to tell a story through iconic images and symbols, reveal their own position in particular and to preserve the authenticity of an object or the city in general. Such a variety of approaches for creating an urban landscape is partly due to differences in preferences formed during studies in art institutions and is also characteristic for the art of Chernivtsi – a city where people of many nationalities with different cultural traditions have lived side by side for centuries. Ultimately, the artists who worked here in the 20th century were often graduates not only of Ukrainian schools or universities, but also of well-known European institutions, including Vienna, Munich, Florentine, Berlin, Kraków, or Bucharest academies. While in the second half of the 19th – early 20th century the city often appears as the sum of certain architectural structures in the works of artists of Bukovina and visiting masters (F. Emery, R. Bernt, J. Shubirs), in the second half of the 19th – first third of the 20th century the artists mostly try to recreate the dynamics of urban life instead, sometimes depicted with a touch of irony, using the grotesque in the image of the inhabitants (lithography and watercolors by F.-K. Knapp, O. Laske and G. Löwendal). Subsequently, we meet emphasized mood images, in which the author's subjective perception of a particular motive, which he seeks to reproduce in a work full of emotions, is important (L. Kopelman, G. Gorbaty). A peculiar historical retrospection is present in the exquisite graphics of O. Kryvoruchko and in the distilled-finished sheets of O. Lyubkivsky, and the lyrical watercolors and sketches of N. Yarmolchuk represent the non-festive side of the city center. In O. Litvinov's paintings Chernivtsi surprises with desolation and restraint, and in M. Rybachuk's paintings it is distinguished by an unexpected riot of colors. Therefore, each of the artists creates his own image of Chernivtsi, which landscapes often become only a stimulus for the author's imagination, allowing him to depict a completely individual sense of space and life of the city.

This study delves into the process of development of Russian animal art of the 18th-19th Centuries. The primary purpose of the research was to make a review of these two historical periods, which determined the typical features of the early and mature periods of development of animal art in Russia—the time of the birth and development of the genre. According to the author, genre issues are important, and talking about it is necessary to define the image of the animalistic nature in all its specificity. In addition, it is noted that researchers do not characterise the stage of early Animalism, which first appeared in the 18th Century, sufficiently. Nevertheless, this genre has demonstrated all the love of artists for the real perception of the natural world and their sincere will to create its truthful and reliable reflection in their works. This tendency is typical for Western European Art. At the same time, it has been explicitly expressed in the works of Russian animal artists. Compared with European Animal Art of the 17th-18th Centuries, Russian ‘Kunstkammer drawing’ and how the class of ‘animal and birds’ was organised looked like a real innovation. These two factors have contributed to the creation of a full-fledged animalistic image. The author underlines that the main principle of imitation of nature was at the basis of teaching in the Russian school. It eventually led to the formation of the genre with its complex, distinctive features. These unique features was observed in the animal art of the 19th Century, mainly in the form of hippique images.
 Nevertheless, there was an attempt to combine two separated historical periods— the 18th and 19th Centuries, which demonstrated different images, approaches (animal naturalia of the 18th Century and horse characters of the 19th Century). The author, here, tends to talk about Russian Animalism of the 19th Century, one of the most explored ones. Doing so underlines the importance of animal art of the two periods as a historically conditioned cultural phenomenon in the relationship between genres of Fine Art and trends of the time. The historical and artistic method made it possible to identify the connection between these two eras in which Animalism was expressed significantly. Its originality is that it combined two diverse eras into one national whole.
 Submitted: December 20, 2020; Revised: 12 February 2021; Accepted: 8 April 2021

The early 17th century witnessed the establishment of Italian vocal art, that would become a reference point for other vocal idioms and the source of bel canto. Italian singers and their art were considered examples worthy of imitation, numerous German or French sources referring to the vocal mastery of the Italians. The present study aims to present several European treatises of the 17th century — Italian, Spanish, German, and French — gradually revealing the evolution of European vocal art, from the early Baroque and its seconda prattica, to the final decades of the century, marked by the growing dispute between the Italian and French style and vocal technique. Throughout the study, similarities and differences are pointed out, revealing that the requirements regarding vocal technique are rather similar for all the singing idioms. What distinguishes the various schools of singing are aspects related to the particularities of the language, that also leads to the adjustment of certain technical demands. Secondly, questions regarding style or the execution of ornaments seem to set the Italian and French vocal idioms apart. The present article represents the first part of a research that is dedicated to the analysis of various historical sources of the 17th and 18th centuries — as valuable milestones for the establishment of the great 19th century singing methods. Historically informed performances require the singer to become acquainted with the historical period to which a particular composition belongs, its treatises and other theoretical sources of the period, eventually arriving to a better understanding of the score and a more accurate construction and delivery of the vocal discourse. Finally, the authors wish to emphasize that the historical sources referred to in the current study represent only a small portion of the theoretical writings of the period, and that the chosen works were considered representative for the current research — but not necessarily the most important.