Comparison of the Effect of Observational Learning and Self-Directed Learning in Improving Technical Skills in Nursing Anesthesia Students of Iran: A Quasi-Experimental Study

A major open question is whether computational strategies thought to be used during experiential learning, specifically model-based and model-free reinforcement learning, also support observational learning. Furthermore, the question of how observational learning occurs when observers must learn about the value of options from observing outcomes in the absence of choice has not been addressed. In the present study we used a multi-armed bandit task that encouraged human participants to employ both experiential and observational learning while they underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). We found evidence for the presence of model-based learning signals during both observational and experiential learning in the intraparietal sulcus. However, unlike during experiential learning, model-free learning signals in the ventral striatum were not detectable during this form of observational learning. These results provide insight into the flexibility of the model-based learning system, implicating this system in learning during observation as well as from direct experience, and further suggest that the model-free reinforcement learning system may be less flexible with regard to its involvement in observational learning.

Effective teaching methods are vital for cultivating advanced professional skills in nurses and equipping them with the necessary training. Problem-based learning (PBL) and self-directed learning (SDL) have been consistently used in nurse education. Therefore, their effects on nursing students’ academic performance warrant comparison. This study compared the effects of PBL and SDL on an adult nursing university curriculum. Participants in this quasi-experimental study with a pre-post non-equivalent control group design were 106 third-year nursing students divided into the PBL and SDL groups. Data collection, conducted from April to June 2019, included a pre-test before an eight-week intervention, followed by a post-test. Changes in the scores of each group were analyzed for learning motivation, self-directed learning ability, self-efficacy, learning confidence, learning satisfaction, and academic performance using paired and independent t-tests. The PBL group scored higher on learning motivation, self-directed learning ability, and academic performance than the SDL group. Based on these results, the PBL method was more effective than the SDL method in an adult nursing curriculum. To maximize the learning effect in adult nursing education, it is necessary to apply SDL education, including the PBL method, with a clearer learning process.

Abstract:Background: The nature of the nursing profession requires professionals who are confident, responsible, motivated and able to work and respond independently in a changing health care environment (Garrison 1992) 5. Hence, the trend in nursing education has moved towards an adult approach to teaching in which students must be self-directed to be able to meet the new challenges. Self directed learning (SDL) approach is one of the programmes which has been established based on adult teaching approach. SDL does not only provide a means for effective learning of knowledge and skills but also serves as a vehicle for enabling nursing students to acquire and develop independent learning skills; as well as develop a sense of accountability and responsibility that equips them with the essential attributes they require for their future nursing career.Aim: The overall aim of this review is to evaluate the effectiveness of self directed learning on the professional development of pre-registration nursing students.Methodology: Systematic review of the literature was conducted. A search for published and unpublished studies between 1985 and 2009 was done using all major electronic databases. A four step search strategy was devised which consisted of using different terminology and keywords to ensure that all material relevant to the review was captured. The review included randomised controlled trial and quasi-experimental studies that compared between SDL and the traditional method of teaching published between 1985 and 2009. The year 1985 was deemed appropriate because SDL has been utilised in nursing education in early 1980(s) and 1990(s) in some countries. The review included studies that addressed pre-registration nursing students. The review focused on studies that addressed SDL approach as an intervention and compared it to traditional method of teaching. Nevertheless, some Canadian studies addressed traditional method of teaching as an intervention and compared it to SDL as the predominant approach in Canada is SDL and students’ were dissatisfied with this approach. Therefore, these studies were also considered as it is still compare between SDL and traditional method of teaching. A variety of outcomes measures was used to evaluate the effectiveness of SDL. These include, improvement in knowledge, psychomotor skills acquisition, students’ satisfaction with SDL and problem solving skills. A total of eight papers were considered applicable to the review based on the information provided in the title and the abstract. These studies then processed to the critical appraisal process. Two independent reviewers assessed the methodological quality of the retrieved papers using Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) checklist for experimental studies and agreed for the papers for inclusion. After critical appraisal, a total of seven papers were included in this review of which six are RCTs and one is quasi-experimental design. Data were extracted using a modified data extraction instrument of JBI. The data extracted were crosschecked by another examiner. The heterogeneous nature of the included studies prevented meta-analysis; therefore, the results of these studies presented in a narrative summary. The studies’ results were grouped by themes that were pulled out from the outcomes of those studies.Results: Most of the studies reached to a conclusion that SDL is an effective approach for learning but not more than the traditional method of teaching. SDL found to facilitate the acquisition of skills, knowledge and problem solving skills effectively. Also, it is a satisfying approach and meets students’ needs.Recommendation: The nature of nursing profession indicates that, nursing is beyond the level of knowledge and skills acquisition. It requires a mixture of different capabilities which include the confidence, responsibility, decision making and life long learning so it is not just limited to skills and knowledge. Therefore, since nursing programs must be congruent with today’s world changes and meet the demands of adult learners, nursing schools which still incorporate traditional method of teaching, should think of introducing SDL programs for long term outcomes.Key words: Self directed learning, SDL, Nursing students, traditional teaching, adult learning approachÂ

Confusion remains about the use of the observer role in simulation. Observational learning is an emerging form of brain-based learning that is applicable to experiential learning and simulation, warranting the further exploration of theoretical foundations. This article describes how observational experiential learning theoretically supports the use of observer roles in simulation. Constructs and concepts from experiential learning and observational learning theories were explored in tandem with brain-based learning evidence from different disciplines. Observational experiential learning was developed by merging these theories together in simulation and debriefing to support both observer and participant roles for learning outcomes. Observational experiential learning incorporates experiential learning, social learning, and social cognitive theories to support the use of the observer role. Educators should consider strategies to foster attention and motivation through prebriefing, debriefing, and observational brain-based learning protocols. [J Nurs Educ. 2020;59(1):7-14.].

Self-directed learning (SDL) is one of the teaching-learning methods that can be used in medical education at all levels. The use of SDL in undergraduate (UG) teaching is becoming common due to the implementation of competency-based education in many countries. The new competency-based UG medical curriculum in India includes lifelong learning skills as one of the major components. The SDL method is reported to increase the lifelong learning skills of students. The concept of SDL is based on experiential learning and its conduct needs proper understanding of the concept. The conduct can include two contact sessions and an intersession or gap period of few days. The contact sessions focus on introduction, facilitation, and debriefing. The intersession period is the real learning period for the students. SDL also includes the use of various assessment methods. All SDL sessions are followed by an evaluation of various stakeholders. Advancements in information technology (IT) and the advent of many innovations in teaching can be aptly used in SDL conduct and evaluation. The present coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has further provided opportunity to use IT in the new normal post-COVID-19 times. Curriculum placement must be done in alignment with other teaching-learning methods. Training of facilitators, availability of resources, and preplanning help in successful SDL conduct. If implemented appropriately, SDL can be a great method to help students in their postinstitute lives.

Background. Self-directed learning (SDL) is the essential mechanism of lifelong learning, which, in turn, is required for medical professionals to maintain competency because of advancing technology and constantly evolving disease care and contexts. Yet, most Nigerian medical schools do not actively promote SDL skills for medical students. Objective. To evaluate the status of SDL behaviour among final-year students, and the perceptions of faculty leadership towards SDL in a Nigerian medical school. Methods. A mixed research method was used, with a survey consisting of a validated Likert-based self-rating scale for SDL (SRSSDL) to assess students’ SDL behaviour. Focus group discussions with selected faculty leaders were thematically analysed to assess their perceptions of SDL. Results. The medical students reported moderate SDL behaviour, contrary to faculty, who considered their students’ SDL behaviour to be low. Faculty leadership further defined SDL as the self-motivated student demonstrating initiative in learning under the guidance of teachers, who use interactive forums for teaching. Furthermore, teachers and students should partner towards the goal of ensuring that student learning takes place. Teachers expressed concerns about SDL methods in medical schools owing to the fear that this will require medical students to teach themselves medicine without expert guidance from teachers. Conclusion. This study suggests that final-year students have a low to moderate level of SDL behaviour. The index faculty are willing to develop teacherguided self-motivated learning for their students, rather than strict SDL. Faculty should be concerned about this behaviour and should encourage SDL in such a way that students realise its benefits to become lifelong learners. Further study of the perceptions about self-regulated learning are recommended.

Introduction: National Medical Commission (NMC) has introduced Competency-Based Medical Education (CBME) for undergraduates (UG) of medical stream in India. Self-directed Learning (SDL) has become a vital part of CBME curriculum, such that NMC mentions some SDL hours can go beyond office hours if required. Therefore, assessing SDL becomes important among the UG medical students (MBBS). Objectives: To assess the readiness towards SDL method among the medical students under CBME curriculum and to find out the factors associated with their readiness towards SDL method. Subjects and Methods: It was a cross-sectional study conducted among the MBBS students under CBME curriculum studying at PESIMSR, Kuppam. All the 300 students were included with 241 participating in the study. Abridged Fisher’s 29 item SDL readiness scale was used. Data were compiled and analyzed using the SPSS (version 23.0; SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Results: Among 241 students, the SDL readiness was found be below average, average and above average in 2%, 66% and 32% respectively. The above average category of SDL readiness was higher (36.07%) among the 1st CBME batch of students than compared to the 2nd batch (27.7%). SDL was found to be statistically significantly associated (P < 0.05) with age, mode of admission, parents’ involvement in the learning process, stress in life and self-confidence of the students. Conclusion: The readiness to undergo SDL varies from student to student. Therefore, understanding their readiness is necessary to sensitize them regarding SDL method. By this, the students can achieve the SDL-based competencies in a better way.

Active learning strategies have become increasingly prominent in medical education. Among them, self-directed learning (SDL) and the Jigsaw method aim to enhance student engagement and improve knowledge retention. However, direct comparisons of these strategies within physiology education remain limited, particularly in the Indian context. This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of SDL and the Jigsaw methodon selected physiology topics among first-year Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) students. We conducted a quasi-experimental crossover study at the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Raebareli, India, between February and March 2025. First-year MBBS students participated in both SDL and Jigsaw sessions covering two different topics. In Phase 1, students from Batch A engaged in SDL, while Batch B employed the Jigsaw method to learn about ascending tracts. In Phase 2, the methods were reversed: Batch A used the Jigsaw approach, and Batch B engaged in SDL to study sleep physiology. Each session lasted 150 minutes. Knowledge gain was assessed using presession and postsession multiple-choice question (MCQ) tests. Students' perceptions regarding their learning experience, engagement, autonomy, and knowledge retention were measured using a validated 5-point Likert scale questionnaire. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used for statistical analysis, with a p value of less than 0.05 considered statistically significant. A total of 88 students underwent crossover. Both SDL and Jigsaw sessions significantly improved posttest MCQ scores compared to pretest scores. The two methods showed no significant difference in the overall pretest and posttest scores. However, students rated the Jigsaw method higher than SDL for overall experience (median 4.5 vs. 3.5; p < 0.001), engagement (4.7 vs. 4; p < 0.001), and knowledge retention (4.3 vs. 4; p < 0.001). Autonomy scores did not differ significantly (4.5 vs. 4.5; p = 0.16). A majority (69.3%) preferred the Jigsaw approach over SDL. Both the SDL and Jigsaw methods effectively enhance learning outcomes in selected physiology topics among first-year MBBS students. However, the Jigsaw method demonstrates superior overall experience, student engagement, and perceived knowledge acquisition and retention.

Our evolutionary history has endowed us with biological systems for identifying those elements of the environment that contribute to our biological fitness and for modifying our behaviors to allow us to acquire them. Theoretical propositions suggest that the ability to detect changes in the statistics underlying in the environment may be useful for rapidly adapting our behaviors. However, little is known about the neural representation of the quantity representing the evidence for a change point: unexpected uncertainty. In Chapter 2, I describe a study in which humans interact with an unstable reward environment while undergoing fMRI. Representations of unexpected uncertainty were found in multiple cortical areas, as well as the noradrenergic brainstem nucleus locus coeruleus. Other unique cortical regions were found to encode estimation uncertainty, or the uncertainty in one’s estimates of the reward contingencies, and risk, or one’s estimate of the stochasticity of the environment. Collectively, these findings support theoretical models in which uncertainty computations determine the speed of learning. Although learning from direct experience in this way is vital to our survival, humans are also particularly adept at learning from conspecifics. However, it is not known whether differing computational strategies thought to support experiential learning, model-based and model-free learning, also support learning by observation. Chapter 3 describes a study in which human participants played a multi-armed bandit task that encouraged them to employ both experiential and observational learning while they underwent fMRI. Model-based learning signals are found during both observational and experiential learning in the intraparietal sulcus. However, unlike in experiential learning, model-free learning signals in the ventral striatum were not detectable during observational learning. These results provide insight into the flexibilty of the model-based learning system, and further suggest that the model-free learning system may be less flexible with regard to its involvement in observational learning. While Chapters 2 and 3 are concerned with modifying reward-seeking behavior in reponse to changes in the external environment, Chapter 4 examines a modification of reward-seeking behavior in response to changes in the internal hormonal environment. Specifically, it describes how the behavior of human males in a simple economic game was influenced by the administration of testosterone. Although a popular view on the role of testosterone in human social behaviour proposes that it increases aggression, a recent theory states that it instead promotes behaviors that enhance social status. In a double-blind, placebo-controlled between-subjects design, administration of testosterone increased punishment of players who treat the participants unfairly but also increased reward of those who treat them generously. Our findings are inconsistent with the view that testosterone simply increases aggression and provides causal evidence for the social-status hypothesis in men. In Chapter 5, I describe an investigation of the phenomenon of ‘choking under pressure’, in which reward-seeking behavior is compromised by the promise of high reward for successful performance. A novel approach to attenuating such 'choking under pressure' using cognitive reappraisal of the incentive is described and tested. When participants performed a demanding motor task under reappraisal, choking was indeed significantly reduced, with the magnitude of this reduction being predicted by the striatal BOLD response to incentive magnitude. In addition, application of the reappraisal strategy was associated with reduced sympathetic arousal during trials on which performance failed at high levels of incentive. These results suggest that reappraisal of the incentive is indeed a promising intervention for attenuating choking under pressure.

Introduction and Aim: Active and learner centred learning methods specially, self-directed learning is considered to be an important method of blended learning approach of imparting knowledge among under graduate medical students in new curriculum through integrated approach. The aim of the study is to analyse the impact and benefits of self-directed learning sessions for understanding cardio- respiratory physiology among phase one MBBS students. Design and Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted among 250 students of Phase I MBBS for CVS and RS modules. Two groups of students were made Group A (n=125) was administered with self- directed learning sessions, while group B (n=125) was administered with normal didactic lecture session for the same topics. Following each session an objective assessment was conducted for all the topics covered in SDL and lecture sessions and the results were assessed and compared. Results: The maximum marks secured in objective assessment by Group A students post self-directed learning sessions for both cardiovascular and respiratory physiology modules were 31.2% (39/125) and 32.8% (41/125); while moderate marks were secured by 47.2% (59/125) and 48% (60/125). For assessment conducted after lecture sessions for both cardiovascular and respiratory physiology module, maximum marks were obtained by 25.6% (32/125) and 24% (30/125); while moderate marks were obtained by 21.6% (27/125) and 23.5% (29/125) respectively. Significant difference was found in the p values of marks for both modules(n=0.009) (n=0.008). The internal assessment scores showed considerable difference in the maximum marks obtained by students attending SDL sessions (80-89%) as compared to didactic learning sessions (70–79%) with p value = 0.0190, 0.01179 and 0.0192, a0.01184, respectively for both modules. Conclusion: Self-directed learning method seems to be more effective way of delivering the concept as compared to traditional lecture sessions.

PurposePolicy makers have called for more entrepreneurship throughout societies as a response to the digital transformation. This paper argues that the rapidly changing conditions of the digital age indeed mark a change in the bases of entrepreneurship. Specifically, as adaptivity becomes key, a learning capacity and general ability to adapt becomes a critical factor in entrepreneurial activity. The paper identifies self-directed learning (SDL) as a fundamental competence in this regard and examines its role for entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial competence.Design/methodology/approachThe paper develops a theoretical framework for the role of SDL in entrepreneurship through a process of systematic review of previous studies that have linked SDL to entrepreneurship.FindingsThe formulated theoretical framework shows how SDL competence combines with experiential learning in supporting the kind of adaptivity needed for entrepreneurial competence, especially under more rapidly changing conditions. SDL competence also gains wider importance through enabling individuals to meet the demands of organizational changes in our highly volatile world.Practical implicationsSDL competence prepares individuals for entrepreneurship and resilience in face of rapid changes as well as for being more entrepreneurial in the conduct of their lives more generally. Fostering SDL competence can thus be regarded as an important objective of entrepreneurship education.Originality/valueThe described self-directed experiential learning cycle offers a novel perspective that clarifies how both self-directed and experiential learning competences are integral for understanding the basis of adaptiveness in entrepreneurial activity.

Experiential and vicarious learning approaches in developing higher-order thinking skills among business education undergraduates in federal universities

Purpose This study assessed the effectiveness of three teaching methods for developing cultural competency based upon Leininger's theoretical framework with nursing students in China: case studies, traditional didactic learning, and self-directed learning. These methods were used in transcultural nursing teaching practices to identify the method that resulted in the greatest improvements in the nursing student's understanding and clinical application of transcultural nursing. Methods The Transcultural Nursing Questionnaire (TNQ) was used for pre-and post-test comparisons of all participants in four areas of cultural knowledge and the Evaluation of Transcultural Nursing Competency (ETNC) was applied via role-play to evaluate the cultural competency of 120 of the 305 participants from three general hospitals in the PuDong New District, Shanghai, China. Individual transcultural nursing courses that focused on case study, traditional didactic or self-directed methods persisted for four months in three hospitals. Results Statistical analyses of the cognitive scores of the participants in the transcultural nursing courses revealed a significant difference( P ＜0. 01)between scores collected before and after the teaching with the three methods. Comparisons of the three hospitals revealed that the scores for transcultural nursing cognition and simulating service assessment were significantly different( P ＜0. 01) for the case study nursing students. The scores of the students who were taught with the traditional didactic and self-directed methods were not significantly different across the three hospitals( P ＞0. 05). Conclusion The results revealed that the case study, traditional didactic and self-directed method effectively improved the transcultural nursing cognitive levels of the nursing students. The case study method appeared to be the most effective approach based upon the TNQ pre-and post-tests and the ETNC cultural competency scores.

Experiential learning is an effective educational approach to improve students' meta-cognitive abilities, enhance their ability to apply information to actual situations, and give them the ability to become self-directed learners. Drawing from the principles of goal-setting and motivation theories, a paired internship program was introduced at a large Asian university for business analytics and information systems undergraduate students in 2015. The scope, goals, and learning objectives of each internship were co-defined by the students, host supervisor, and faculty supervisor. The program was designed to be a paired, structured internship where students select their own partner and work full time for 24 weeks. Pair work promotes collaborative peer-learning and allows students to acquire complementary skills. In order to reap maximum benefits from their internship experience, students need to engage in self-regulated learning by taking control of their own learning through planning, monitoring, and deciding how to spend time on the most important learning activities. Throughout their internship, students submit regular learning logs capturing their reflections of the internship experience. At the end of their internship, they also submit a learning journal by reflecting upon the connection between work and academic experiences, professional skills they have developed, and how theory is translated into practice. These written reflections form the core academic assignments used to enhance the educational value of the internship. Reflective journaling is especially relevant to internships because reflective skills, particularly in work-integrated learning, are critical for fostering students' lifelong learning and professional practice. This research examines the role of goal setting and investigates the effectiveness of the various pedagogical mechanisms used to facilitate self-regulated experiential learning. We performed qualitative content analysis on the document submissions of 74 students to identify evidence of transformative learning in which students show that they can reconcile concrete experiences within a field of theoretical concepts to identify, change, connect, and act differently. We coded the written reflections as either concrete experience (CE), reflective observation (RO), abstract conceptualization (AC), or active experimentation (AE). Besides the qualitative data, we also collected data through two surveys at the start and end of the internship to assess the students' experiential learning styles, motivations, goal-setting behaviors, and goal attainment orientations. We performed quantitative analysis on these measures to uncover further insights. Overall, the findings indicated positive experience-based learning outcomes from the internship suggesting that designing internship programs based on experiential learning principles can effectively equip students with both technical skills and essential soft skills. Recommendations for incorporating internships in computing curriculum to serve as a form of practice-oriented pedagogy to complement and supplement classroom pedagogy are provided.

Learning from failure can foster innovation, but how a new product development (NPD) team’s learning from failure affects new product performance requires more insights. In particular, the question remains on how collective efficacy, which discerns team members’ belief to achieve desired goals, affects team learning from failure towards improving new product performance. Using social cognitive theory complemented by sensemaking and attribution theories, we examine the effects of NPD teams’ (experiential and vicarious) learning from failure on new product performance and the moderating effects of collective efficacy on these relationships. With survey data collected from 398 responses within 152 NPD teams in Chinese high-tech small and medium-sized enterprises, we find that both experiential and vicarious learning from failure enhance new product performance in terms of speed to market and product innovativeness. Further, as collective efficacy increases, the positive effect of experiential learning from failure on speed to market is strengthened. However, the positive effect of vicarious learning from failure on product innovativeness is weakened. Our results suggest that NPD teams can benefit from experiential and vicarious learning from failure to improve new product performance but must pay attention to the double-edged effect of collective efficacy.