Comparing Human Video Modeling to Animated Video Modeling for Learners with Autism

Social-communicative abilities and theory of mind (ToM) are crucial for successful social interactions. The developmental trajectories of social and communicative skills characterizing individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) are rather complex and multidimensional, including components related to theory of mind. Due to its mentalistic nature, theory of mind has been rarely addressed as an outcome for Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) intervention in children and adolescents with ASD. However, there is evidence that ABA intervention might be effective in promoting social abilities in individuals with ASD. Thus, this topic is worth investigating. We present a systematic review to explore the Ins and Outs of an ABA approach to promote social and communicative abilities and ToM in children and adolescents with ASD. We applied a PRISMA checklist to consider studies published up to December 2024. The keywords that we used were ToM, perspective-taking, false belief, social cognition, and mental states, in combination with ABA intervention and ASD (up to age 18). We searched for studies using Scopus, Google Scholar, and Medline. We included twenty studies on perspective-taking, identifying emotions, helping, detecting eye gazing, and social engagement, reviewing fifteen dedicated to teaching the interpretation of mental states (involving 49 children and 10 adolescents). The ToM was addressed with a multiple baseline design on target behaviors associated with ToM components such as identifying emotion, helping behaviors, and mental states. The intervention included a behavioral package consisting of Behavioral Skill Training, Derived Relations, video modeling, and role playing. The results indicated a significant number of participants who followed ABA intervention to promote social abilities and mastered the target behavior in ToM tasks; however, they showed maintenance and generalization issues across trials and settings. The role of predictors was highlighted. However, the studies are still rare and exhibit specific methodological limitations, as well as some clinical and ethical considerations. More research is needed to define best practices in ABA intervention to promote social abilities in individuals with ASD.

The development of high quality user-friendly video capture and editing equipment at relatively low costs has resulted in wonderful opportunities to incorporate video technology into behavioral interventions for individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) (Goldsmith & LeBlanc, 2004). The most common strategy for incorporating video into behavioral intervention is video modeling (VM), which involves having a learner watch a videotape (rather than a live demonstration) of a person correctly performing the target behavior followed by an opportunity to imitate (Delano, 2007). Other video-based behavioral interventions (VBIs) include video-based feedback and video-based discrimination training. In video feedback, a learner and teacher watch video footage of the learner's performance while the teacher provides consequences for appropriate exemplars (e.g., praise or other reinforcers) and for non-exemplars (e.g., corrective feedback and suggestion for alternative behavior) (Thiemann & Goldstein, 2001). In discrimination training, the learner watches video footage that may or may not show their own performance and determines which behavior or category of behavior is exemplified in each scene (e.g., rude or polite, friendly joke or bullying). In the past 20 years, a substantial research literature has amassed to document the beneficial effects of VM for teaching a wide variety of skills to individuals with ASD (Bellini & Akullian, 2007; Delano, 2007). Recently, my students and I coded approximately 40 published studies on VM with individuals with ASD during a 20-year time span (1987-2007) (Dillon, LeBlanc & Geiger, 2009). Over half of those studies targeted social behavior (including social language) (Charlop-Christy, Le & Freeman, 2000; Geiger, LeBlanc, Dillon, & Bates, 2010; Nikopoulos, & Keenan, 2003; Sherer, et al., 2001), with self-help/daily living skills (e.g., Charlop-Christy et al., 2000; Keen, Brannigan, & Cuskelly, 2007) as the second most frequently targeted area. Three of the studies in our special issue represent diversity in the skills targeted with individuals with ASD. Allen, Wallace, Renes, Bowen and Burke demonstrate how video modeling could be used to teach a vocational skill to a young adult with ASD. Allen et al. used a commercial video training tape to teach a man with ASD to effectively use a WalkAround[TM] to interact with customers in a retail warehouse as part of his employment preparation. Given the growing importance of focusing on transition to adulthood and employment opportunities, I am delighted to have the needs of adults with ASD represented in our special issue. Blum-Dimaya, Reeve, Reeve and Hoch also illustrate how video modeling can be used in conjunction with gaming technology to teach modern, age-appropriate leisure skills using a multi-component package. Blum-Dimaya et al. taught children with ASD to play Guitar Hero II[TM] and conceptualized the game-embedded visual displays as a form of simultaneous video modeling where the individual has the opportunity to imitate during, rather than after, the streaming video footage. Not only does this study demonstrate a strategy for teaching a very socially valid target, but it also illustrates that when we categorize our VM interventions using a functional rather than topographical approach, we may actually discover new tools for VBIs. Finally, Charlop, Dennis, Carpenter, and Greenberg demonstrate the effects of video modeling for teaching the most complex multi-component social behavior studied to date. Their participants were able to learn to emit social language responses that were accurate with respect to content, intonation, accompanying gesture, and accompanying facial expressions during their comments about ongoing events. In addition to demonstrating the effectiveness of video modeling, researchers have also examined the characteristics of the VM or the video presentation that are most important to facilitate skill acquisition (e. …

School‐aged children with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) have delayed gestural development, in comparison with age‐matched typically developing children. In this study, an intervention program taught children with low‐functioning ASD gestural comprehension and production using video modelling (VM) by a computer‐generated robot animation. Six to 12‐year‐old children with ASD (N = 20; IQ < 70) were taught to recognize 20 gestures produced by the robot animation (phase I), to imitate these gestures (phase II) and to produce them in appropriate social contexts (phase III). Across the three phases, significant differences were found between the results of the pretest and the immediate and follow‐up posttests; the results of both posttests were comparable, after controlling for the children's motor and visual memory skills. The children generalized their acquired gestural skills to a novel setting with a human researcher. These results suggest that VM by a robot animation is effective in teaching children with low‐functioning ASD to recognize and produce gestures.Lay DescriptionWhat is already known about this topic: Children with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) have difficulties with nonverbal communication. Children with ASD have difficulties in recognizing and producing gestures. What this paper adds: A multiphase therapeutic intervention program using video modelling (VM) of robot animation is effective to promoting the gestural communication skills, both recognition and production, in children with low‐functioning ASD. Children with ASD have improved their skills to recognize the taught gestures (phase I), imitate them (phase II) and produce them in appropriate social contexts (phase III). Children with ASD are able to generalize the acquired skills to human‐to‐human interactions after the intervention program. Implications for practice and/or policy: VM of a robot animation is effective in teaching children with low‐functioning ASD both gesture recognition and gesture production. The multiphase therapeutic intervention protocol can be recommended for clinicians or teachers in special schools to teach children with low‐functioning ASD gestural communication skills.

Over the past 20 years, there has been a noticeable increase in the prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) because of the change in diagnostic criteria, policy and increased awareness. One of the issues that children with ASD have in their life is self-help skills. This triggers the need to adopt a proper technique to intervene and teach new skills to children with ASD. Video modelling (VM) is one of the intervention methods that can be done with children with ASD as one of parent-mediated interventions (PMI). The objective of this study was to investigate the self-help skills problems among children with ASD and parents’ perception of using VM to improve self-help skills in children with ASD. Associations of the child’s and parent’s demographic characteristics with self-help skills problems and perception of parents in using VM were also examined. A cross-sectional study using purposive sampling that included 262 parents of children with ASD was employed. Questionnaires that include demographic characteristics, Vineland Adaptive Behaviour Scale Third Edition (VABS-3) and Video Modelling Perceptions Scale (VMPS) were completed by the participants. There were significant differences between the age of children with ASD (p < 0.001) with self-help skills problems. Educational level (p < 0.001), occupation sector (p < 0.001) and household income status (p < 0.001) were associated with parents’ perceived interest and accessibility in using VM. In conclusion, parents showed positive responses about their perceived interest and accessibility in using VM to improve self-help skills in children with ASD.

Amelioration of Aggression and Echolalia With Propranolol in Autism Spectrum Disorder

This study aims to compare the effectiveness of emerging animated video modelling (VM) and the most widely used adult VM in teaching social-communication skills to 3-year-olds with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) in China. A single-case experimental design was used, with data analysed by using visual analysis and an effect size measure, namely, the baseline corrected Tau (Tau-BC). Three 3-year-old preschoolers participated in this study. Each preschooler’s social-communication behaviours across the baseline, intervention, withdrawal, and maintenance conditions were recorded and analysed. Results showed that all three VM effectively improved preschoolers’ social-communication behaviours; preschoolers’ improvement in overall social communication and scripted social communication was greater in response to animated VM than adult VM; two of the three preschoolers’ improvement in unscripted social communication was greater in response to animated VM than adult VM. Mixed VM led to the greatest improvement in all three social-communication behaviours for two of the three preschoolers. The preliminary findings extended previous findings by demonstrating for the first time that animated VM was more effective than adult VM, and mixed VM was more effective than animated VM or adult VM alone for two of the three preschoolers.

Video modeling involves the learner viewing videos of a model demonstrating a target skill. According to the National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders (2011), video modeling is an evidenced-based intervention for individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in elementary through middle school. Little research exists evaluating video modeling for individuals with ASD in high school. This study examined the effectiveness of video modeling to facilitate the development of word recognition and pronunciation in three male high school students with ASD. A single-case multiple baseline experimental design across participants (i.e. video modeling sequentially implemented across three students) was used to evaluate the effectiveness of video modeling. Results indicate that video modeling was effective in facilitating word recognition and pronunciation. Findings suggest that video modeling may be a viable intervention to foster the reading development of adolescents with ASD.

A severe deficit in handwriting is known as dysgraphia, a problem frequently associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Video self-modelling (VSM) has been proven effective for children with ASD in the strengthening of social skills, verbalizations, and daily living skills. Because VSM has demonstrated success in the acquisition of many types of skills, it may prove similarly effective for remediating dysgraphia in children with ASD. Utilizing a single-subject design with three 7–8 year old children diagnosed with ASD, this study examined VSM as a treatment for improving handwriting legibility and proficiency. All participants’ legibility data showed a large effect sizes and high Percentages of non-overlapping data from baseline to treatment and maintenance phases, indicating that VSM is an effective treatment for improving and maintaining handwriting legibility in children with ASD. Results are discussed in terms of applicability of VSM as an intervention with academic skills deficits in children with ASD.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder that impairs the development of social and communication skills. There is evidence that children with ASD prefer images of self over others [1] . These studies may explain the effectiveness of video self-modeling (VSM), an evidence-based ASD intervention in which one learns by watching oneself on video performing a target behavior. VSM content is difficult to create as target behaviors are sporadic. In this paper, we propose the MEBook system which uses a Kinect sensor to inject self-images into a gesture-based social narrative to teach children with ASD proper greeting behaviors. MEBook consists of two components. The first component is a social narrative. A social narrative is an animated story about the main character meeting and greeting different cartoon characters in a particular setting. Self-modeling is achieved by first replacing the main characters face with an image of the learner, and then animating the learner's body and voice to match the narration. The second component is a positive reinforcement practice session in which the subject is prompted to greet different cartoon characters. Through depth-based body posture tracking, proper greeting behaviors are recognized and immediately reinforced with praise and visual confetti. Novel computational multimedia tools are proposed to turn video recordings of successful attempts into VSM content, thereby alleviating the tedious production process. A multiple-baseline single subject pilot study has been conducted and the preliminary results show that MEBook is potentially effective in teaching greeting behaviors to children with ASD.

The first part of the article aims to show different models of formation of social skills and technologies of social development of children with autism spectrum disorders used abroad. It aims to summarize and systemize the most promising methods of working with children with ASD, to analyze the researches that verify the efficiency of the technologies and prove the scientific validity of used methods. Methods. The methods involve theoretical analysis, systematization and summarization of scientific and methodological publications published abroad on the issue of developmen t of social skills in children with ASD. Results. The most efficient methodical techniques used abroad that had undergone the empirical approbation, which may be included in the process of social-psychological support for children with ASD and their families are defined under conditions of adaptation of such techniques. The most efficient and littleknown in Russia methods of development of social skills in children with ASD are described: video modeling; virtual technologies; technologies of inclusion of peers and parents in the process of socialization of children with autism. Scientific novelty. All modern foreign developments in the field of social development of children with ASD are summarized for the first time in the presented article; the question about the necessity of scientific validation of practical technologies and verification of the efficiency of the developed methods is raised. It has been shown that scientifically validated data that confirms the usefulness of many foreign methods for children and adolescents with ASD is absent. It has been concluded that translation and validation of some successful methods of socialization of children with ASD are important: video modeling; virtual technologies, possibilities of telecommunication methods. Practical significance . An overview of the most tested techniques will enhance the knowledge of domestic researches in the field of the most promising models of support of children with ASD and their families. A description of the basic principles and mechanisms of each of these methods, developed by foreign colleagues, will help different specialists (teachers-psychologists, speech pathologists, recreation therapists, teachers of inclusive education).

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often find it difficult to communicate using body language and facial expressions to respond appropriately socially. This negatively affects the quality of their everyday social life. Children with ASD can learn to socially interact with virtual three-dimensional (3D) characters in animated games enhanced with augmented reality (AR). They can learn about body language and facial expressions through roleplay. This teaching method can effectively improve the interactive social skills of children with ASD and reduce the fear and anxiety which they typically experience when they face real people. However, most current virtual roleplay models focus only on predefined body language and facial expressions limited by the training system. These systems lack immediacy and a sense of genuine interaction for children with ASD. Therefore, we wanted to create a system that will allow trainers and therapists to control 3D virtual characters that are able to produce in real time the full range of natural body language and facial expressions appropriate for males, females, and even special cartoon characters. Based on the multiple baseline design across subjects, the data indicated that real-time Kinect Skeletal Tracking (KST) System can help the children with ASD improved their social interaction.

PP15.16 – 2465: Effective interventions in addressing play deficits in children with autism spectrum disorders

The purpose of this study is to compare the effectiveness and efficacy of computer based social stories and video modeling while teaching social skills to children with autism spectrum disorder. The study was conducted with one child with autism spectrum disorder who is 6 years old. The target behavior was starting and carrying on playing skills independently. The research desing of the study is alternating treatment design. The results of the research indicated that video modeling was more effective to increase playing skills indepedently than social stories. Maintanence probes were conducted 3., 5. and 7. weeks after intervention was completed and the maintanence results indicated that the skill was going on. Also social validity data of the study was obtained doing descriptive analysis. The result of the social validity findings showed that the mother found the social stories and video modeling effective.

Imitation is a prerequisite for the development of several important abilities. Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) exhibit a distinct deficit in imitation. There has been a considerable amount of research into the most effective ways to teach this crucial skill. Unfortunately, there are drawbacks to many prevalent teaching strategies including difficulty with implementation and lack of generalization. The present study sought to determine whether video modeling (VM) might function as a successful alternative for teaching imitation to young children with ASD. The literature on VM has demonstrated that it can be a highly effective technique for teaching a variety of skills to individuals with ASD. Additionally, VM has been identified as easy to implement and has lead to improved generalization when compared to other treatments. However, there are still a number of questions about when, and for whom, VM is most effective. The current study begins to answer some of these questions by analyzing a treatment comparison between VM and live modeling (LM). Eight children were taught to imitate two equivalent behaviors each, one using VM and the other using LM. The trials to criterion required to learn the behaviors were then compared. Results indicated that there was a significant difference between the two treatment types, and that six of the participants were more successful with VM. Neither social skills nor technological literacy were significant predictors of treatment success. However, pre-treatment imitative abilities were shown to significantly predict success. Those children with the fewest imitative abilities were shown to be more successful with the VM technique, while those children with more imitative abilities were more successful with LM. An additional analysis was conducted to evaluate the predictive relationship between social skills and imitation. Results indicated that social skills significantly predict imitative abilities. These results could have widespread implications for imitation training, as they verify the relationship between social skills and imitation, demonstrate that VM can be an effective treatment for teaching young children with ASD to imitate, and further indicate that a pre-treatment imitation assessment may help to identify the most effective and efficient treatment for each child.

Moving Toward Understanding Autism: Visual-Motor Integration, Imitation, and Social Skill Development