Comparative analysis of monetary transaction cost of human-wildlife conflict in Mt. Kenya and Amboseli ecosystems, Kenya

Human-wildlife conflicts (HWC) can cause substantial losses. Compensation for such losses is essential to foster positive community attitudes toward wildlife conservation. Monetary compensation for the loss of human life, injury, crop and property damage, or livestock depredation by wildlife is a common strategy for mitigating HWC. We analyzed inter-specific, spatial, inter-annual and seasonal variation in human-wildlife conflicts, conflict outcome and the associated monetary costs of compensation in Kenya during 2007-2016. A total of 18,794 compensation claims were filed with the Kenya National Compensation Scheme (KNCS) during 2007 - 2016. Snakes made the greatest contribution to the total cases (44.8%, = 8,423), human fatalities (43.1%, = 614) and human injuries (76.9%, = 7,772). Elephant was the second leading conflict species (22.3%, = 4,181) and was responsible for 18.8% ( = 266) of human deaths and over 75% of crop and property damage. Spotted hyena, leopard and lion caused 85% of livestock predation cases. The intensity and outcome of conflicts varied across counties such that most human fatalities occurred in arid Tana River and Wajir counties, whereas most human injuries occurred in Kitui and Wajir counties. The intensity of conflicts was strongly influenced by the agro-climatic potential and percentage of a county under protection, rainfall and temperature and their interactions. In consequence, crop damage was highest in counties with high agricultural potential (Meru and Taita Taveta) but livestock predation was highest in counties with large protected areas (Samburu and Taita Taveta). Human fatality and injury were higher among males than females and adults than children. Over the 10-year period, the Kenya Government spent about 3 billion Kenya shillings on compensation of about 30% of all filed claims. Compensation schemes require sustainable funding mechanisms and effective administration to minimize negative unintended consequences. Key words: Human-wildlife conflicts, compensation, snake bites, attack on humans, livestock predation, crop raiding, rainfall, temperature, human population growth.

Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) in Himachal Pradesh is a critical issue arising from the intersection of human activities and wildlife habitats. Rapid deforestation, agricultural expansion, urbanization, and infrastructure development have all reduced natural habitats, pushing wildlife to live close to human settlements. Crop raiding, livestock predation, property damage, and on rare occasions human casualties are all forms of conflict. Leopards, black bears, monkeys, and wild boar are among the important animals involved in conflicts. The consequences of HWC are diverse, including economic losses for farmers, dangers to human safety, retaliatory wildlife fatalities, and disruptions to ecological equilibrium, despite current mitigation measures such as compensation schemes, fencing, wildlife transfer, awareness campaigns, sterilization program obstacles persist due to lack of funds, delays in policy implementation, and limited community participation, which complicates interventions. Studying human-wildlife conflicts is crucial to developing effective and sustainable solutions to mitigate negative impacts on humans and wildlife. This review helps in understanding the conflicts in Himachal Pradesh and developing strategies that promote coexistence. The state may effectively reduce human-wildlife conflicts while preserving its rich biodiversity by using an integrated approach that balances conservation goals with the socioeconomic requirements of local communities.

Human–wildlife conflict presents major challenges to both wildlife managers and rural livelihoods. Here, we investigated human–wildlife conflict in and around Senkele Swayne's Hartebeest Sanctuary (SSHS). We estimated the densities of wild animals within SSHS and conducted questionnaire interviews about livestock predation and crop raiding patterns with individuals in 378 households occurring <3000 m outside the Sanctuary's borders. Respondents reported that hyenas Crocuta crocuta and African wolves Canis anthus were the only livestock predators and were responsible for combined losses of ∼ 10% (29 207 USD) of their livestock over a three‐year period. Hyenas predated cattle, goats, sheep, donkeys and horses, whereas African wolves targeted only goats and sheep. Hyena predation occurred both inside and outside SSHS, whereas African wolf predation occurred mainly near the inside periphery of the sanctuary. Most (58%) of the respondents experienced crop raiding of their farms by Swayne's hartebeest Alcelaphus buselaphus swaynei , warthogs Phacochoerus africanus and/or crested porcupines Hystrix cristata . Nearly two‐thirds (64%) of the crop raiding occurred 1–1500 m from the sanctuary. Potatoes and maize were the most commonly raided crops. Local communities used guarding, patrolling, loud noises, smoky fires, flashes of light, fences and trenches as deterrence methods. Of the crop raiding species, only Swayne's hartebeests were regarded positively, while warthogs and crusted porcupines were viewed negatively by respondents. We conclude that although SSHS is of critical conservation value to the Swayne's hartebeest, the surrounding communities endure significant livestock predation and crop raiding by wild animals sheltered in the sanctuary. The survival of this relict population of Swayne's hartebeest in the sanctuary remains at risk unless the human–wildlife conflict in surrounding areas is resolved. This calls for site‐specific measures in consultation with the local community.

Human-wildlife conflict and community perceptions towards wildlife conservation in and around a biodiverse National Park, northern Ethiopia

In African countries, crop-raiding by wild animals and human-wildlife conflicts are recurrent and common concerns for conservationists, protected areas managers and surrounding populations. At different levels, these challenges hinder the achievement of conservation goals. Although researchers have widely studied human-wildlife conflicts in Nyungwe National Park, few have examined its impact and lived experiences of local communities who are regularly facing crop-raiding by wild animals. The present study conducted in areas adjacent to the park including those affected with a high rate of crop raiding aimed to assess: (1) the community perceptions on human-wildlife conflicts and (2) the community perceptions on the compensation schemes set up to minimize the conflicts. For this purpose, a qualitative method was adopted. It relied on field semi-structured interviews with the representatives of conservation key stakeholders including local communities that experienced crop raiding. On one hand, the findings indicated that communities affected by generalized crop raiding are complaining about socio-economic and livelihood losses, food insecurity and injury. On the other hand, they showed that affected communities are not satisfied with the compensation scheme. Difficult requirements for compensation, complicated compensation procedure, rejection of compensation claims, undervalued payment and irregular compensation and delay of payments were identified as key problems that keep human-wildlife conflicts at high levels. The compensation process is so slow, so long and so costly that the victims of crop raiding abandon compensation claims. As a result, local communities continue to deal with self-defense since monetary compensation is unable to decrease the level of crop raiding. The findings call for an improved compensation scheme for reduced human-wildlife conflicts and efficient management following the model of effective compensation. Even though fencing the Park could be expensive, it would be a viable option to minimize wild-animals escape from the park. In addition, enhancing collective guiding system was proposed by the local community as their innovative strategy that could reduce crop raiding.

Crop raiding and livestock predation are major conservation problems throughout most protected areas in Nepal, including the Khaptad National Park (KNP). However, no information exists on the extent of crop raiding, livestock predation, and animal attacks among villages surrounding KNP. We conducted a survey of 304 households in 30 villages in four districts (Bajhang, Bajura, Doti, and Achham) in the buffer zone of KNP between 24 May and 20 June 2019, using the snowball sampling technique. All households experienced numerous major incidents of crop raiding between April 2017 and May 2019. Major wildlife involved were Wild Boar Sus scrofa, Himalayan Black Bear Ursus thibetanus, Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatta, Barking Deer Muntiacus vaginalis, Common Leopard Panthera pardus, Golden Jackal Canis aureus, and Porcupine Hystrix spp. Of the 304 households, all had their crops raided over the past two years, 55.5% (n = 169) faced livestock predation, and 2% (n = 6) attacks resulting in death or injury. Over 40% of households reported taking mitigation measures to minimize crop raiding. Common measures such as night guarding, noise making, use of scarecrows, watch dogs, and fencing were practiced. More than half of respondents had negative opinions towards wildlife but they still believed that wildlife should be conserved. There was no or negligible correlation between general opinion of respondents towards wildlife and wildlife conservation with their education, sex, or involvement in natural resources management group. We established baseline information on crop raiding and livestock predation in villages surrounding KNP. Gathered information will be transmitted to relevant authorities to design and implement measures to mitigate such conflicts.

Human–wildlife conflict (HWC) tends to occur when human behaviour negatively affects wildlife and vice versa. The HWC has increased in Akathethera and Malampuzha I Panchayats since 2015 and more so after 2020. Increase in built-up by 100%, decline in forest cover by 1.509% and decline in mixed tree cover by 9.09% suggest habitat fragmentation and encroachment upon wildlife habitat between 2013 and 2025. Households grow about 3 crops per year, which are attacked by at least 2 different animals. Larger variety of crops grown, attract higher number of animals (correlation of 0.518). The average annual economic loss due to crop damage is reportedly Rupees 58,550.59 per household. 618 individual livestock deaths were reported, where poultry and guard dog deaths were maximum with the highest number of leopard attacks and the average loss per household being Rupees 36168.42 between 2015-2025. There are 28 cases of human injury and 2 deaths, mainly by elephant, wild boar, and snake attacks where the average economic loss is Rupees 8,911.76 per attack between 2015-2025. Elephants, wild boars, and monkeys are responsible for most property damage, where fence damage is common, and Rupees 26,546.51 on average was lost between 2015-2024 per household. The heat density maps and conflict probability map reveal that the southern portion of the study area is most vulnerable. Only 27.49% of households have registered for compensation. With a high volume of crop damages, livestock kills, property damage, human injury and deaths, there is animosity towards wildlife conservation which requires a holistic and robust framework to aid wildlife conservation and human safety.

Crop raiding and livestock predation negatively impact the views of the local community towards wildlife conservation. Farmers across the African continent, especially those in rural regions, incur financial losses as a result of crop raiding and livestock depredation. The sustainability of the forest relies heavily on comprehending the essential connection between a harmonious park-people relationship and the coexistence of humans and wildlife. The primary aim of this study is to evaluate the predation of livestock, the raiding of crops, and the attitudes of the community towards wildlife in the Mankira Forest located in southwest Ethiopia. This particular area has been lacking in scientific research, making it crucial to conduct this assessment. The data were collected between November 2021 and September 2022 via a structured questionnaire. This study used a sample of 241 randomly selected respondents from the four villages, and responses were compared using chi-square tests. Pearson correlation was also used to test the relationship between the distance of farmland and the extent of crop raiding. The majority of the respondents (95%) reported the presence of crop raiding and livestock predation in the area. These losses were caused by the Papio anubis (39%), the Chlorocebus aethiops (24.1%), the Hystrix cristata (15.3%), the Canis aures (58.3%), and the Crocutacrocuta (29.5%). Maize stood out as the crop type most susceptible to crop raiders. Most of the respondents (56.7%) had a negative attitude towards wildlife conservation. There was a significant difference among age groups of respondents related to their attitude towards wildlife conservation (p < 0.05). The study highlights the need to address several gaps in understanding and managing human-wildlife conflict through research on predation, raiding, and community attitudes. Therefore, to fulfill the dual goals of community support and conservation of wildlife, rigorous management and planning are needed.

This study investigated the patterns of HWC and the attitudes of local people to wildlife conservation around Dachigam National Park, Kashmir. Multistage random sampling technique was employed to select a total of 394 households from the 10 sample villages for household survey. Data were collected through questionnaire survey, focus group discussions and direct observations. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, chi-square test and correlation analysis. Results revealed that the major types of HWC were crop raiding, livestock predation, increased risk of livestock diseases and direct threats to human life. Majority of the respondents (44.82%) faced crop damage and domestic animal loss, 26.25% reported threat to humans and 0.67% reported that they did not face any conflict with wild animals. Close proximity of the villages to the park and seasons influenced livestock predation intensity with highest predation in the summer season (58.4%). To mitigate these problems, the local people utilized various traditional methods including guarding and drum beating. Most of the people had positive attitudes towards the conservation of wildlife. Appropriate measures are to be implemented to mitigate the HWC problems and safeguard the biodiversity of the wildlife in the park.

Agricultural expansion within Kimana electric fences and implications for natural resource conservation around Amboseli National Park, Kenya

Human–wildlife conflict is a serious challenge undermining the integrity of protected areas in developing countries. Developing effective human–wildlife conflict mitigation strategies requires an understanding of the conflict patterns, species involved and attitudes of local people living along protected area boundaries. We hypothesised that (1) there was a high level of human–wildlife conflict and (2) the local people would have less favourable attitudes towards problematic wild animals. We assessed patterns of human–wildlife conflict and attitudes of local people along the boundary of Chebera Churchura National Park, Ethiopia from 2012 to 2014. A total of 354 households were selected randomly for interview. A questionnaire survey, focus group discussions and direct field observations were carried out in the selected villages. The major types of human−wildlife conflict in the area include crop raiding, livestock predation, increased risk of livestock diseases and direct threats to human life. A majority of the respondents (68.1%) faced crop damage and domestic animal loss, 12.3% reported threat to humans and 0.3% reported that the wildlife might cause diseases. Close proximity of the villages to the park and seasons influenced livestock predation intensity with highest predation in the wet season (56.0%). To mitigate these problems, the local people utilised various traditional methods, including guarding. Most respondents had positive attitudes towards the conservation of wildlife. However, as the frequency of conflicts increased in the last five years, the attitudes of local people might change. Active measures are to be implemented to mitigate the problem and safeguard the future of the wildlife around the park. The park has enormous potential to benefit more local people by implementing a participatory management approach to conservation.

Human-wildlife conflict is widely known situation where people and wildlife share common resource. This study was conducted to investigate the perceived impact human-wildlife conflict (HWC) in the Choke Mountains, Ethiopia. Data were collected in 2014 and 2015 using semi-structured questionnaires and focus group discussion. Pearson correlation was used to test the relationship between different factors. Majority of respondents (56%) reported the existence of HWC manifested through both crop damage and livestock predation. Anubis baboon, bush pig and porcupine were identified as major crop raiders in the study area. The most prominent sheep predation was caused by common jackal (51.6%). The average crop loss per household per year was 1.56 ± 0.42 quintal. There was a strong negative correlation between the extent of crop damage event and distance of the study area from forest edge (r = -0.67, P < 0.05). The average sheep loss per household by the common jackal in the last five year was 2.12 ± 0.63. Fire wood collection in the study area is negatively correlated with distance from the natural forest (r =-0.58, P < 0.05). Encouraging local communities to prepare private grazing land from their own farmland and to keep intact the habitat of wildlife should be done. Key words: Choke Mountain, crop raiding, forest disturbance, predation.

Forests contain much global biodiversity, and over 90% of the worlds' poorest people depend on them. Few forests remain in East Africa, and these are vulnerable to further fragmentation from expanding settlement, and to over-exploitation by people and wildlife that become prone to over-crowding through isolation. Kenya contains 26 natural habitat fragments and only 3% of forest cover across five main forest blocks. These blocks form the main water towers in semi-arid Kenya on which people and wildlife, far beyond the protected boundaries, depend. Mount Kenya (MK) is the largest forest block, and the protection of its water catchment function is of national importance (Chapter 2). The five forest blocks in Kenya hold almost one third of the total of 28,806 elephants in Kenya, of which MK was estimated as having the largest highland elephant population with 2,911 (±640) individuals in 2001 (Chapter 3). Elephant estimates in forest are usually derived from dung count surveys, which are prone to bias and accordingly most often classed as C or D, in the range from A (best) to E (worst), in the African Elephant Database (AED). The MK elephant estimate described in this thesis was one of only two dung count estimates that were classed as quality B in the AED of 2002 (Chapter 3). Explanatory models based on the dung count data were integrated with a geographic information system (GIS) to develop the most advanced predictive seasonal distribution maps currently available for elephants in a forested environment (Chapter 4). Furthermore, least-cost elephant travel routes and foraging paths were digitally traced over cost surface images, developed from data on preferred elephant habitats in different seasons, physical barriers such as extreme slopes, and land use barriers such as farmland (Chapter 5). This enabled the location of elephant movements in relation to plantations inside the MK forest, and investigation of the relationship between measured tree damage in plantations and elephant movements (Chapter 5). Two areas where subsequently identified where elephant routes strayed from the forest into adjacent farmland, which was where most elephant crop damage was reported by farmers to Kenya Wildlife Service stations and outposts (Chapter 6). Elephants and people trespassing on each other's habitats is pronounced because MK is surrounded by a ring of small-scale farmers, totalling over 500,000 people living within 5,000m of the MK forest boundary on farms of 1.6ha on average (Chapter 6).Time-series analysis of satellite imagery of 1987,1995, and 2000 illustrated a gradual deterioration of MK land and resources, and results of an aerial survey conducted in 1999 showed high levels of illegal exploitation of land and resources (Chapter 7). However, management responsibility of the MK forest transferred from the Forestry Department to the Kenya Wildlife Service in July 2000, and time-series analysis of satellite images of 2000 and 2002 show regeneration of degraded MK land by 2002 (Chapter 8). Comparison of two aerial surveys conducted in 1999 and 2002, showed a significant reduction of illegal exploitation of forest resources on MK by 2002 (Chapter 8). Sound land use management plans are needed for MK to avoid deterioration of the forest by an over-crowded and confined elephant population, and by surrounding people. These plans need to address problems with longer term solutions, regardless of the short term disadvantages that they may entail (Chapter 9).

Human-wildlife conflicts (HWC) have increased in frequency and severity worldwide as a result of human population growth, expansion of agricultural and industrial activities. Conflicts are more severe in areas where both human populations and wildlife live and share ecosystem services, especially around protected areas. This study focused on different forms of human wildlife conflicts experienced by local communities in Kieni West Sub-County, Kenya. This study used a descriptive survey design. 2340 households were the study's target population, and they came from the villages of Amboni, Bondeni, and Njeng'u. Collection of data was by means of questionnaires, interview schedules, participant observations and focus group discussions. Data analysis was done using descriptive statistics, Chi-squared tests (X2) and pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) . Information from key informants was analyzed thematically. Data was presented by frequency tables, figures and pie-charts. The results of this investigation showed that local communities in Kieni County encountered various types of human-wildlife conflicts including human injuries and threats (3%), crop damage (53%), livestock predation (23%), disease transmission to livestock (16%) and property damage (5%). This study concluded that human-wildlife conflicts were significant among local communities of Kieni West Sub-County, Kenya. Consequently, farmers were unable to realize the full potential benefits from crop and the livestock production as a result of crop damage and livestock predation from different wild animals species.

Comparative analysis of time and monetary opportunity costs of human-wildlife conflict in Amboseli and Mt. Kenya Ecosystems, Kenya