Commercial Social Capital and Social Conflict: Historical Evidence From China

There has been a long-entrenched view that China’s Qing Dynasty was a ‘Manchu Dynasty’, which imposed alien conquest on China’s majority of the ethnic Han. Such a view has made the Manchus allegedly responsible for all the social evils from the 1840 Opium War onwards on the one hand and all the ‘anti-Manchu’ sentimentalities and movements, such as the Taipings and Republicans, automatically legitimate and revolutionary on the other. This article challenges this stereotype and argues with historical evidence that the ‘Manchu rule’ was a myth. Social conflicts in late Qing were mainly between the Han Chinese themselves. It is time to end the ‘Manchu rule’ as an easy pretext to conceal the true social issues and problems in the nineteenth- and twentieth-century China.

본 논문은 지역사회자본 형성을 통한 지역갈등해소 방안을 연구하였다. 이를 위해 사회자본에 대한 이론적 배경, 사회자본의 기능과 구성요소, 지역갈등요인을 정리하였으며, 이러한 요소를 바탕으로 연구모형과 분석변수를 제시하였다. 연구모형은 크게 사회자본과 지역갈등을 대칭으로 하고 인적요소를 독립변수로 놓은 형태로 구성하였다. 또한 설문조사를 통해 실증분석을 하였다. 실증분석은 빈도분석, 회귀분석 등으로 이루어졌다. 우선, 빈도분석 결과 지역갈등을 해소하기 위해 사회자본형성이 중요하다는 것으로 나타났다. 다음으로, 회귀분석 결과, 사회자본 구성요인과 지역갈등요소인 지역이기주의, 지역참여, 지역문제 정도가 각각 결정계수 5.1%, 5.5%, 1.6%로 나타났으며, F 값은 4.030, 4.351, 1.194로 나타났다. 이것은 사회자본형성이 높을수록 지역갈등 정도는 낮아지는 것을 증명하는 것이다. 즉, 사회자본형성이 지역갈등 해소에 상관성이 많음이 증명되었다. 사회자본형성을 위해서는 지역사회와 자지단체. 지역주민들이 함께 협력하고 노력해야 할 것이다. 특히 사회자본이 취약한 20대. 30대에 대한 사회자본 형성 전략이 연구되어야 할 것이다. This paper studied the resolving the regional conflict method through the community capital formation. For this purpose, the theoretical background about the social capital, function of the social capital and component, and regional conflict factor were organized. In addition, it analyze empitically through the survey. First, in order to resolve the frequency analysis result regional conflict, the social capital formation was exposed to be important. Next, the regression analysis result, the factor of social capital and the local egoism, the local participation, and the problem of local areas, each, it was expressed as the coefficient of determination 5.1%, 5.5%, 1.6%, and F value showed up as 4.030, 4.3,51, 1.194. This demonstrates that it is decreased the regional conflict as the social capital formation is high. That is, the social capital formation was proved at the resolving the regional conflict that there was lots of the correlation. The community and penis organizationThe local residents should cooperate together and it should try. Particularly, the 20 generations and 30 generations in which the social capital is weak, the social capital formation strategy about the 20 generations and 30 generations should be studied.

Historical social capital and contemporary private investment choices

Subject of my studies is activities of editing and publishing newspapers and magazines, carried out by Chinese students in Japan during the late Qing period. Through examine the contents and process of transmission of these newspapers and magazine, I will explore how these kind of new mass media had accelerated the structural changes of China’s politics, society and culture. My argument is divided into 4 parts stated as bellows: First part deal with reasons contribute to the massive trends of Chinese students studying in Japan during late Qing, and their political and cultural activities during their stay. After The Russo-Japanese War, numbers of Chinese students studied abroad increase rapidly due to encouragement by the Qing authority and cooperative efforts from Japan. In aspect of politics, students influenced by nationalism had mobilized massive boycott to attend classes and even returned to China collectively. In aspect of culture, they formed associations of fellow provincials , reading clubs, did massive translation from Japanese into Chinese on Western works which had been translated into Japanese. They also introduced western thought through publishing newspapers and magazines. Second part of my dissertation explain how these papers and magazine published by Chinese students in Japan transmitted and circulated among the people in China inwardly and downwardly, to constitute the public sphere in late Qing. After 1895, the reformers utilized new mass media fully as means of enlightenment. However after the WuXu coup, Qing authority had ordered to shut down all press, thus the later shifted their operation to concession and overseas. Japan was amongst such important fortified point, it gathered all essential elements such as space, manpower, resources of thoughts and cultural constitution, to form a public sphere whereby reasoning critiques can be carried out in public, outside the control of official authority. From Japan via Shanghai to the ports, and eventually to various villages and towns all over the country, the Chinese public sphere was transmitted to lower class and the mass. Through shared reading on common works, papers and magazine created a spectacle context , which supplied the mass with a public sphere, although in reality, the exact spaces were separated due to differences of social classes and living environment . Third part would analyze the mutual relationship between publications by Chinese students in Japan and the political power of China. I would divide the main theme into three categories according to its development. First of all is to analyze and induce from the text, the newly formed field of power due to the highly political nature of the papers and magazine run by Chinese students study abroad. Secondly, to study responses of Qing authority on these newly formed field, which has shown an oppressive nature initially and end up with docile. My dissertation would tract this changes in policy, to examine the constitution and transformation of this field of power. Finally, to examine how the intellectuals had manipulated the operation of this field of power, to sustain their superiority in culture and to propagate their political stand. Part four emphasize the potential impacts on languages and culture during the transmission of new thought through papers and magazine. This dissertation will clarify it from 3 perspectives, which are vocabulary, genre and resources of idea respectively. Chinese students in Japan during late Qing had done massive translation and introduction of western thought through the Field which was constructed by papers and magazine. As a results, plenty of new vocabulary has been introduced and merged into the vocabulary system of Hanyu( the Chinese language), created intensive impact and supplement to the system of thought which was previously exist . Since the process of translation and introduction of western theories had been carried out too hastily, syntactic construction which imitate Japanese genre had created a kind of Genre of Japanese Direct Translation , producing New Genre which is a transition between GuWen( classical Chinese) and Bai Hua ( modern Chinese). This New Genre has changed Chinese literary language as well. In the aspect of resource of idea, through translation of Japanese publication , Chinese students digested and applied western theories carried in it, and reproduced it in books, papers and magazine which they published. In such a way, Japan had become a medium through which new thoughts from western was imported into China during late Qing. In other words, China was depending on Japan in its process of acquiring western culture. Finally, this dissertation conclude the importance of papers and magazine in late Qing, this new field constructed by new form of mass media had finally accelerated the transformation of politics, society and culture during that period.

“Xiao Shuo Lin” , published by Xiao Shuo Lin Publishing House in 1907, is one of four fiction periodicals in late Qing Dynasty, and was the turning point in the history of newspaper and periodical development in late Qing Dynasty. It shows that the newspapers and periodicals gradually transformed from political enlightenment to literature, popularization, and business, and made re-orientation and re-thinking to the public and private fields. The thesis can be divided into five parts chiefly: First of all, analyzing Xiao Shuo Lin Publishing House and “Xiao Shuo Lin’s” overall operation and publishing conditions, which were beneficial for making exposition afterwards in this thesis. Secondly, the translation of novels and anecdotes of others that occupied the greatest space of publication; this part explored the West and China’s mutual viewing and orientation behavior by means of translation, and translation had changed China’s way of viewing itself. Then, continuing to discuss “Xiao Shuo Lin’s” viewpoint of literature that attached importance to aesthetics, literariness, and business value, and presented the individual subject’s emerging after the modernity entered late Qing Dynasty, resulting in the literature’s tending to secular value and tool value; hence, the subjects of “watching stealthily” and “peeping” were often seen in the fictions, influencing the literature trend of early Republic of China; besides, newspapers and periodicals have become an enterprise for people working in a publishing house to make a living, and the introspection of improving the quality of publications was aroused because of wanting to boost the sales volume. Furthermore, researching the gender issue; “female reform” in late Qing Dynasty was the language constructed by males; “Xiao Shuo Lin” published “Nie Hai Hua (Flower in the Sea of Evil),” the news event of “Qiu Jin,” and family category novels, revealing female image’s crossing the border and reversal in the public and private fields. Finally, the short novels’ transformation in form, content, and punctuation marks, leading the readers to roam through Shanghai to appreciate the metropolitan style and features as “Les Fleurs du mal (The Flower of Evil)” in late Qing Dynasty, and know the world view of people at that time. “Xiao Shuo Lin” is situated at the position of inheriting the past and ushering in the future (namely, serving as a link between past and future), sways between the vertexes of literature development, public and private fields, Chinese and Western culture or enlightenment and business, being rich of profound meaning of modernity and with edification.

Hailed as the first female medical doctor of China, the exemplary new citizen of the burgeoning Chinese nation, and a model of Christian conversion, Kang Aide (1873~1930) is a figure to whom others attributed tremendous representational power as well as different meanings. Comparing three versions of her story, one by late Qing reformers represented by Liang Qichao, one by American Missionaries, and one by herself, this paper traces the enactment of modernity at a particular historical moment, an enactment fraught with ambiguity and contested at the very moment of its conception. As a primary way of signifying difference, gender was one of the most potent metaphors of the late Qing. The status of women was intimately linked to the representation of history, as the image of the traditional woman was closely associated with the past and that of the modern woman rhetorically wedded to the model of progress. The late Qing, once described as a transitional period between tradition and modernity, yields fascinating stories when we shift our attention to the understanding of historical representation itself in other words, to the necessary conditions for the conceptualization and narrativization of history. The discourse of history-making, critics have recently argued, necessarily suppresses other stories; that is to say, the intelligibility of history is predicated on what is repressed and forgotten. As gender figured prominently in the narrativization of history in the late Qing, its intelligibility also depended on what was forgotten. Seen in this context, the late Qing is not so much a transitional period as a period that originated a particular and gendered version of tradition in an effort to produce and enact a particular and gendered modernity. The case of Kang Aide is interesting because of her apparent centrality as well as her hidden marginality to various projects of modernity. Her case illustrates a peculiar historical paradox: while the term ”woman” was given tremendous representational power in the late Qing, its existence and intelligibility was predicated on what was forgotten about women, that is to say, both her predecessors who were dismissed as ”traditional” as well as elements in her that were deemed less than modern. Through the case of Kang Aide, this paper traces the enactment of modernity at a particular historical moment, an enactment fraught with ambiguity and often contested at the very moment of its conception.

One of the development features of the academic research in the Qing Dynasty is the emergence of prospective of academic history. Confucians in the Qing Dynasty held great ambition to distinguish boundary between disciplines and carefully analyze boundary and difference among various kinds of knowledge of Classics, Shi, Zi and Wen through this perspective. So, this paper will discuss, under this perspective, the classification of distinguishing the academic chapter and examining the origin and branch Ruan Yuan Circle did against the literature in 18th century of the middle of the Qing Dynasty which leaded it to free from constraint of writing being for conveying the truth and promoted literature to stand alone to become a potential school of pure literature emerged in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic. In this paper it holds the opinion that behind the dispute of parallel prose and prose in the Qing Dynasty it is not completely the result of debate between Sinology and Song Learning but Qing Confucians should hold a bigger target. Therefore, the writer basically puts in order literature views from the Tang Dynasty, Song Dynasty to the middle of the Qing Dynasty and gets the results that the theory of writing being for conveying the truth was deep in scholars’ mind, whether the “truth” refers to social function of music education or formal meaning of heavenly principles and natural law. In short, writing should primarily link truth, translate truth and convey truth, and especially through the way of compiling collection it further commit and promote the effect of spreading this theory. Facing thousand-year long obstacles, scholars of Ruan Yuan Circle struggled to hold the opinion that the works in the Six Dynasties should be the very literature, and even collected and explored school vein of literature from Wenyanzhuan of Confucius to The Four Books of the Min Dynasty with the purpose that made literature to be an independent discipline different from Neo-Confucianism, study of Chinese Classics, Historical Science and Confucianism. As a result, they took theory of verse and prose and Zhao Min Selected Works as their theoretical basis and first criticized the works of eight great writers, praised highly by the later generations, in the Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty in thought that the content of these works were all in the fields of the Classics, History and Confucianism but not writings. They, therefore, through discrimination and propagation of theory, stated that literature should have features of antithesis and rhyme on form and content and should express one’s feeling by using rhetoric but not be restricted to outmoded conventions and old laws. Secondly, they showed their spirit of being practical and realistic through the way of worshipping scholars of the six dynasties and declared that their concept of literature didn’t words without basis. The Preface of the Selected Works held the principle that it would not select anything but literature writing, and that’s why it was thought highly by Ruan Yuan Circle. Under the study style of character being the first in the Qing Dynasty, Ruan Yuan was the first putting forward the view of ancient Chinese fiction sharing the same origin and school with verse and prose which resulted that the research to Selected Works was badly influenced and it embodied in analysis to Annotation of Li Shan and even thought on the same level of Xv Xuan, Xv Kai and Cao Xian, Li Shan. Therefore, scholars in the Qing Dynasty thereby opened another scholastic trend of science of name and object system, car and clothes in palace, and grass, wood, bird and beast in the Selected Works. The scholars in Ruan Yuan Circle not only introspected ancient Chinese and the Eight Great Men of Letters of the Tang and Song Dynasties, but also promoted the research of Dragon-carving and the Literary Mind. Besides, the emergence of rudiment of viewpoint of literature history was inherited and praised by literary historians in the early Republic. This achievement was formed on the basis of the prospective of literary history. Its influence involved until Zhang Taiyan, Liu Shipei and Huang Kan in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic who all inherited and proposed the theories that the basic lesson was that writing should be form with rhetoric and that the ancient writers were all Confucians in the Min Dynasty. On the other hand, they didn’t accept completely but did some change and even criticized Ruan Yuan in some place. Now, it went into the nest phase of complicated and versatile literary transformation.

Reviewed by: Modern China's Network Revolution: Chambers of Commerce and Sociopolitical Change in the Early Twentieth Century by Zhongping Chen Brett Sheehan (bio) Chen, Zhongping. Modern China's Network Revolution: Chambers of Commerce and Sociopolitical Change in the Early Twentieth Century. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011. xxi, 289 pp. $55.00 (cloth) The title of Zhongping Chen's new book has a double meaning. Modern China's Network Revolution refers both to his claim for new, revolutionary forms of networking among lower-Yangzi Chinese elites at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries and to the revolutionary roles of those networks in elite mobilization, especially in the 1911 revolution which overthrew the Qing. As such, the book makes a meaningful contribution to debates on the nature of Chinese organizational practices, especially merchant organizational practices, and to debates about the nature of late-Qing elite mobilization and the relationship of those mobilized elites to the state. The first three chapters focus on the new organizational forms, or what Chen calls associational networks (p. 7). Chen traces the beginnings of chambers of commerce, their growth and their bourgeoning relationships with each other. Specialists will appreciate the detailed information on specific merchants and organizations in these chapters, though general readers might find the number of names daunting. In theorizing about new organizational forms, Chen does not dismiss particularism as important in network formation, but he does argue for the importance of formal organization. Chen summarizes the gist of this organizational revolution as a series of new institutional norms and links: "formal leadership, membership, periodic meetings, competitive elections, network hierarchy" (p. 208). The result was organizations which were neither natural results of earlier guild evolution nor simple imitations of Western counterparts (p. 18). Chen shows the "revolutionary" results of these new institutions in a series of fascinating case studies. Chapter four discusses the extension of relationships among chambers of commerce as they banded together for the 1905 anti-American boycott, became involved in municipal governmental affairs, especially in Shanghai, and as they helped found other new organizations such as the extremely important merchant militias. Chapter five portrays chamber activities in the commercial and industrial realms as chambers organized tax protests, became involved in the Railroad Rights Recovery Movement, organized the Nanyang industrial exposition, and negotiated with American business interests. Chapter six provides an absorbing account of chamber involvement in the growing constitutional movement and then eventually in the revolts and secessions of the 1911 revolution which overthrew the Qing dynasty. Chen argues that the revolution did not, as some have claimed, grow out of the railway rights recovery movement which peaked in 1907, four years before lower-Yangzi businesspeople broke from the Qing (pp. 158-159). Chapter seven carries the story beyond 1911 to discuss the fates of lower Yangzi chambers in the republican period after 1911, but this chapter has less detail and is less satisfying than the other rich cases studies. Chen's topic fits within a series of important debates about local elites in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries. Taking a middle ground in terms of the balance between state and local power, the book portrays chambers as a combination of state-down direction and bottom-up mobilization on behalf of merchants (p. 56). Thus, initially the Qing court preferred merchant leadership for chambers so these new organizations would not enhance the power of the government's own provincial officials at the expense of the center (p. 52). At the same time, once formed, "official attempts to divide and rule chambers failed" (p. 76). The chambers were creatures of the state and simultaneously tools of local elites. Merchant elites, however, were not just interested in local dominance, but also showed public interests and joint actions with the populace against both the Qing government and foreign encroachment (p. 14). Although this last conclusion echoes the public sphere debates of two decades ago, Chen is careful to avoid this terminology. He shows that the relationship between merchants and the state is more complex than many arguments about the public sphere allow, and he presents a picture of "interactive dynamics and changeable relations with the state...

At the beginning of the twentieth century, with the increase of Western influence and the promulgation of the ‘new policies’ towards the end of the Qing dynasty, there appeared in Chinese cities a change of great social significance, that is, the emergence of large numbers of self-government associations. These self-government associations were a novelty in the early years of the twentieth century, their emergence heralding structural changes in state-society relations. Among the most important of these were chambers of commerce. Using Suzhou City as an example, this chapter explores why these changes amounted to the beginnings of ‘civil society’ in China. (Rowe, 1990, 1993; Wakeman, 1993; Rankin, 1993; and Wang Di, 1996)

This paper presents a model of social capital and social network formation. The key interaction within the model is that whom an individual chooses to become friends with affects the value (social capital) of the friendship. In the model, how a player searches for and then forms friendships reveals how willing she is to engage in cooperation with a potential friend. Individuals observe their local network structure (friends and cliques) and the actions of players within these. Willingness to cooperate is private information and is captured by the discount factor of an individual. Cooperative types have high discount factors and can signal their type by forming a clique through befriending a friend of a friend. Uncooperative types do not form these kinds of friendships because of the local observability of their actions to all members of a clique. Thus, when a player meets someone with whom she shares a friend, her belief that the individual has a high discount factor is greater than the population average. In this sense, people “trust” each other more when they share a friend in common. Finally, I relate the primitives of the model to characteristics of the implied social network by nesting the sequential equilibrium in an algorithm of network formation proposed by Jackson and Rogers (Am Econ Rev 97(3):890–915, 2007). The model highlights a trade-off between maximizing the total amount of social capital in a society and distributing it equitably across individuals.

“Pu-Tian-Tong-Qing Troupe” was assembled by the eunuchs of the Inner Court in the late Qing dynasty, also known as “Ben-Gong” or “Ben-Jia”. This troupe directly belonged to Dowager Cixi but not governed by the Sheng-Ping office; thus which was also regarded as a private troupe. In the development of the Inner Court Opera of the Qing Dynasty, “Pu-Tian-Tong-Qing Troupe” Troupe was indeed one of the most important troupes in the late Qing dynasty. Luan-Tan Opera (Pi-Huang) was the main genre which they performed the most; the actors were instructed by some famous civil actors such as Yang, Long-Shou, Wang, Leng-Xian, and Tan, Xin-Pei. That instruction not only made the troupe had great performing techniques, but also indirectly helped the actors enjoy a high status in the Court. This dissertation carries out an advanced deliberation in the categories of the formation, the organization, the representative actors, the play list, the stage of the troupe, and the significance of the troupe in regard to the Court Opera in the late Qing dynasty. Aim to have a better comprehension of the behaviors of “Pu-Tian-Tong-Qing Troupe”, and to initiate a new direction of the research of Inner Court Opera in Late Qing.

This article examines change and continuity in the selection, conceptualisation and state-sponsorship of 'famine foods' in late Qing, Nationalist and Maoist China. It employs as case studies the following severe famines that struck North China under three markedly different regimes: the North China Famine of 1876-79, the Henan Famine of 1942/43 and the Great Leap Famine of 1958-62. Continuities that cut across the three periods include the particular non-grain foods - beginning with tree bark and wild plants and extending to Bodhisattva earth ( Guanyin tu ) - consumed at the local level, and a tradition of elite involvement in identifying and endorsing items that could relieve starvation. The terms used to describe survival foods changed significantly, however, as did the rationale for promoting such foods. Moreover, as twentieth-century Chinese modernisers joined their Western counterparts in championing the use of science and technology to address food crises and other disasters, state-run health and scientific agencies played an increasingly active role in testing and promoting recipes for non-grain foods. This trend reached its zenith during the Great Leap Famine, when the government launched a 'food substitute' ( daishipin ) campaign that aimed to address food shortages without reducing grain quotas by encouraging the mass-production of food substitutes such as chlorella and artificial meat. This campaign can be understood as a sharp departure from Qing China's grain-centred famine relief policies, a radical extension of rhetoric and priorities laid out during the Nationalist period and a case of high modernism gone badly awry.

STEPHEN C. AVERILL 4 THE CULTURAL POLITICS OF LOCAL EDUCATION IN EARLY TWENTIETH-CENTURY CHINA STEPHEN C. AVERILL, MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY The tight connection between Confucian learning, government service, and social standing fostered and reinforced by China’s imperial order meant that the abolition of this order early in the twentieth century profoundly affected educational attitudes and institutions. It also transformed China’s political, social, and cultural landscape generally. Some of these effects, such as the evolution of formal educational institutions , the incubation of innovative cultural attitudes and activities in the nation’s modern schools, and their intimate interaction with the New Culture and May Fourth movements of the 1910s and 1920s, have been well studied. However, other important aspects and implications of the educational transition from empire to republic either are much less well known or are misunderstood. One relatively unexplored topic is the impact of abolition of the examination system and its replacement by a new network of Western-influenced schools on the cultural politics of the late Qing reforms. A related question is how late Qing educationrelated cultural and political conflicts affected the later and better-known New Culture-May Fourth era struggles. A common assumption is that the deeply iconoclastic New Culture and May Fourth movements, and the school-centered activities so closely associated with them, were largely de novo creations of the late 1910s and 1920s. But this perspective fails to recognize the existence and subsequent impact of an earlier wave of school-centered cultural conflict surrounding the introduction and expansion of the late Qing school system, some aspects of which are captured in this symposium’s papers by Steven B. Miles and Elizabeth VanderVen. The focus on the urban iconoclasm of the May Fourth era has also led to the relative neglect of research on the social, cultural, and political impact of educational change (both before and especially after 1919) on the lives of hundreds of thousands of rural elites in what was still an overwhelmingly agrarian society. With these issues in mind, this article explores aspects of the cultural politics of China’s post-civil service examination educational system as it evolved during the first third of the twentieth century. The first half of the essay examines aspects of the introduction and early evolution of the new school system during the last decade of Qing rule to demonstrate both the resilience of the examination system and the Qin Shao and Robert Culp edited the final version of this essay, which had to be shortened somewhat from its original form. We have tried, as much as possible, to leave the original prose and argument intact. We apologize for any errors or inconsistencies that might have resulted from the editing process. We thank the two anonymous reviewers for Twentieth-Century China, who provided valuable suggestions for polishing the final version of this essay. We also acknowledge Christopher A. Reed for his commitment to including Steve’s voice in this issue dedicated to commemorating his work. Volume 32, No. 2 TWENTIETH-CENTURY CHINA 5 concrete impact of new schools on the reconfiguration of social groups and cultural models. It emphasizes the often-divergent aims and expectations regarding the new system that were held by the Qing court, reformist elites, and other groups, and highlights the challenges and compromises in the process of educational reform. It focuses on the struggle of the literate elites, including those in rural China, who had been deeply enmeshed in and partly defined by the civil service examination system, to adapt to the new system and reinvent themselves in part through the use of educational institutions. The intense politicization of the new “educational circles (教育界 jiaoyu jie)” in the late Qing, as indicated by widespread student protest and informal organizational activity, represented an organic growth of political activism from the transition in the school system and student identity. This part of the essay thus illustrates that broader patterns of social change and political conflict brought about by the introduction of the new system—characterized by campus unrest, cultural debates, associational development, critical publications, and political participation—were already underway before the May Fourth era began. The second half of the essay shifts chronologically...

Purpose– The purpose of this paper is to analyse inclusive growth that focuses on the creation of opportunities for all. Inclusive growth allows people to contribute to and benefit from economic growth, while pro-poor growth approaches focusing on welfare of the poor only to reduce inequality.Design/methodology/approach– Social capital forms with the development of human capital through schooling. Educated individuals are interested in dialogue and conversation. Interaction enables people to build trust, confidence and cooperation, to commit themselves to each other (i.e. reciprocity), and thereby to knit the social fabric. This study deals with the formation of social capital through development of human capital that is created through improvement of schooling and/or social inclusion. Creation of human and social capital is the basis for inclusive growth.Findings– Recently, economics literature incorporates social capital for explaining regional disparities. Economic development of country depends on the impact of social capital which includes social culture, norms and regulations that promote economic reforms and development activities. Social capital forms with the development of human capital through schooling.Research limitations/implications– More detail regional levels data are required for empirical findings.Practical implications– This paper definitely suggests a clear policy for inclusive growth model in less developed regions/countries. Briefly and specific few policies are suggested as: first, improve productive consumption providing nutritional intake to all the excluded people of the society; second, dismal the social blocking and create the base for bridging social capital formation; third, improve school enrollment and strengthen the feeling of togetherness; fourth, design school curriculum as per need base; and fifth, develop institutions and improve capacity building.Social implications– The Government expenditure policy should be focused more on productive consumption rather than unproductive consumption. The government should concentrate on the development of education and health sectors.Originality/value– The inclusive economic growth process overcomes low-level equilibrium trap. The predictions of the model are examined empirically for a cross-section of countries and have substantial support in the chosen sample data.

At late Qing Dynasty, the study of Taoism, Motse, Legalist is found with significant development with the revival of diversified schools of philosophers. Besides, Motse thought has also been affected by western study and academic atmosphere for statecraft of practical purpose. In addition to the use of traditional ”textual criticism” method, it has also combined statecraft for practical purpose, and methods from western study so that it has demonstrated unique value and meaning among diversified schools of philosophers in late Qing Dynasty.”Study of Motse” by Liang Qi-chao is considered to be of important work by Philosophers' Study at late Qing Dynasty and early Republican. The organization of the work is believed to found on the four major notions of belief of Motse study, which is linked up by religion, social utility, altruistic love, and politics and other issues. To a great extent, Liang places much focus on the relationship between the academics and contemporary development of the society. In such a way, the perspective of ”practical purpose” is employed to cut profoundly into its mindset and it can be rather helpful in exploring exploration the endowment of Motse study. Furthermore, Liang Qi-chao is also found with research vision seeing the development of western study, and his concept and thought of ”practical purpose” is undoubtedly smeared with trace of western study. For instances, his elaboration on ghost and spirit, economics, country, and national is closely connected with western philosophy, and it can be well explicated by the fact that Liang Qi-chao has well versed with academic perspective of Chinese and western studies. Furthermore, Liang considers that the realization of theory by Motse can be anticipated within the domain of politics, and it is why issues as ”race,” ”Great Harmony,” ”freedom and equality,” and ”rule of law” discussed by contemporary scholars can, as well, be linked to the political ideal of Motse thought through the reform of polity.