Coming to Latin America: Moving image encounters, non-Latin American practitioners

Significant challenges confront U.S. Americanists who want to adopt transnational, inter-American, or hemispheric frameworks in their scholarship. Hemispheric models, as Latin Americanists in the United States and Latin America have observed, can run the risk of reproducing the totalizing, neoimperialist structures that American studies practitioners may be seeking to work against—such models inadvertently can take part in the economic and cultural domination of Latin America by the United States in the name of globalization. As Sophia McClennen provocatively asks: “Inter-American Studies or Imperial American Studies?” McClennen’s apprehension that hemispheric or inter-American studies is “the latest variation on the Monroe Doctrine of patronizing Latin America” (394) reflects the concern of Latin Americanists, as well as those teaching in language departments, that hemispheric models will reorganize institutional resources and curricular structures in ways that will further marginalize already struggling language and area studies disciplines.

Clinical relevance To explore optometric practices and attitudes in the management of keratoconus patients in LatinAmerica and how they are influenced by eye-care technology will help to minimise disease progression and their impact on patients’ quality of life in Latin America. Background Keratoconus is a progressive, bilateral and asymmetric corneal disorder that requires a multidisciplinary approach, the use of different eye assessment technology, and different management approaches; mainly contact lenses and surgery. Methods Self-reported answers to an online survey (adapted to primary eye care) distributed via a newsletter emailed by various professional organisations across 15 Latin American countries were assessed and compared with those previously reported in three European countries. Results Answers from 977 eye care practitioners (60%) with >10 years of experience (396 in Latin America and 581 in Europe) were assessed. A total of 65.9% of Latin American responders prescribed rigid corneal lenses (RCL), although more than half of the respondents (54.0%) would fit more RCL if they underwent further training in RCL fitting. A majority of Latin American practitioners (74.0%) considered that RCL fitting is more difficult in keratoconus, requiring more diagnostic lenses (4.6 ± 2.7; median 4; range 1-10) than are necessary for healthy eyes. Low availability of corneal topography was reported in Latin America (23%), although practitioners with topographers are more likely to prescribe RCL (92.3%) and detect more new patients with keratoconus per year (83.5%). A minority of respondents referred keratoconus patients to another optometrist (25.8%) or (40.4%) participated in comanagement with ophthalmologists. Conclusion This study provides initial evidence regarding keratoconus management in Latin America and suggests that actions are necessary to improve RCL training, facilitate eye-care technology accessibility and encourage comanagement between eye care practitioners to minimise disease progression and their impact on patients’ quality of life in Latin America.

Executive SummaryThe World Small Animal Veterinary Association Vaccination Guidelines Group has produced global guidelines for small companion animal practitioners on best practice in canine and feline vaccination. Recognising that there are unique aspects of veterinary practice in certain geographical regions of the world, the Vaccination Guidelines Group undertook a regional project in Latin America between 2016 and 2019, culminating in the present document. The Vaccination Guidelines Group gathered scientific and demographic data during visits to Argentina, Brazil and Mexico, by discussion with national key opinion leaders, visiting veterinary practices and review of the scientific literature. A questionnaire survey was completed by 1390 veterinarians in five Latin American countries and the Vaccination Guidelines Group delivered continuing education at seven events attended by over 3500 veterinarians.The Vaccination Guidelines Group recognised numerous challenges in Latin America, for example: (1) lack of national oversight of the veterinary profession, (2) extraordinary growth in private veterinary schools of undetermined quality, (3) socioeconomic constraints on client engagement with preventive health care, (4) high regional prevalence of some key infectious diseases (e.g. feline leukaemia virus infection, canine visceral leishmaniosis), (5) almost complete lack of minimal antigen vaccine products as available in other markets, (6) relative lack of vaccine products with extended duration of immunity as available in other markets, (7) availability of vaccine products withdrawn from other markets (e.g. Giardia vaccine) or unique to Latin America (e.g. some Leishmania vaccines), (8) accessibility of vaccines directly by pet owners or breeders such that vaccination is not delivered under veterinary supervision, (9) limited availability of continuing education in veterinary vaccinology and lack of compulsion for continuing professional development and (10) limited peer‐reviewed published scientific data on small companion animal infectious diseases (with the exception of leishmaniosis) and lack of support for such academic research.In this document, the Vaccination Guidelines Group summarises the findings of this project and assesses in evidence‐based fashion the scientific literature pertaining to companion animal vaccine‐preventable diseases in Latin America. The Vaccination Guidelines Group makes some recommendations on undergraduate and postgraduate education and academic research. Recognising that current product availability in Latin America does not permit veterinarians in these countries to vaccinate according to the global World Small Animal Veterinary Association guidelines, the Vaccination Guidelines Group makes a series of “pragmatic” recommendations as to what might be currently achievable, and a series of “aspirational” recommendations as to what might be desirable for the future. The concept of “vaccine husbandry” is addressed via some simple guidelines for the management of vaccine products in the practice. Finally, the Vaccination Guidelines Group emphasises the global trend towards delivery of vaccination as one part of an “annual health check” or “health care plan” that reviews holistically the preventive health care needs of the individual pet animal. Latin American practitioners should transition towards these important new practices that are now well embedded in more developed veterinary markets.The document also includes 70 frequently asked questions and their answers; these were posed to the Vaccination Guidelines Group during our continuing education events and small group discussions and should address many of the issues surrounding delivery of vaccination in the Latin American countries. Spanish and Portuguese translations of this document will be made freely available from the on‐line resource pages of the Vaccination Guidelines Group.

Purpose To assess the opinion of Latin–American physicians on remote blood pressure monitoring and telehealth for hypertension management. Material and methods Cross-sectional survey of physicians residing in Latin–America. The study was conducted by the Mexico Hypertension Experts Group, Interamerican Society of Hypertension, Interamerican Society of Cardiology Epidemiology and Cardiovascular Prevention Council, and National Cardiologist Association of Mexico. An online survey composed of 40 questions using Google Forms was distributed from 7 December 2021, to 3 February 2022. The survey was approved by the GREHTA Ethics Committee and participation was voluntary and anonymous. Multiple logistic regression models were constructed to identify the challenges of telehealth. Results 1753 physicians’ responses were gathered. The responses came from physicians from different Latin–American countries, as follows: 24% from Mexico, 20.6% from Argentina, 14.7% from Colombia, 10.9% from Brazil, 8.7% from Venezuela, 8.2% from Guatemala and 3.2% from Paraguay. Responders with a high interest in carrying out their assistance task through remote telemonitoring reached 48.9% (821), while 43.6% are already currently conducting telemonitoring. A high number, 62%, claimed to need telemonitoring training. There is a direct relation between higher interest in telemonitoring and age, medical specialty, team working, residence in the biggest cities, expectations regarding telemedicine and reimbursement. Conclusions Remote monitoring is feasible in Latin–America. General practitioners and specialists from bigger cities seem eager and are self-perceived as well-trained and experienced. Facilities and resources do not seem to be a challenge but training reinforcement and telemedicine promotion is necessary for those physicians less motivated. PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARY What is the context? Hypertension is one of the leading worldwide modifiable risk factors for premature death. Strong evidence supports that effective treatment of this condition results in a significant reduction of hard outcomes. Only 20%–30% of hypertensive patients are within the blood pressure targets recommended by guidelines in Latin–America. There is an urgent need to implement innovative strategies to reverse this alarming health situation. What is new? Latin–American physicians were highly predisposed to telemonitoring practice. This high motivation was not influenced by hardware or software availability, technological knowledge or experience, by volume of monthly consultations, or by area (private–public) where the care activity is carried out. This high motivation may be supported by the conviction that this practice could be very useful as a complement to face–to–face assistance and a highly effective tool to improve adherence even though respondents considered that just 10% of the patients would prefer telemonitoring over office consultation. What is the impact? Facilities and resources do not seem to be a challenge but training reinforcement and telemedicine promotion is necessary for those physicians less motivated. The general perception is that it is necessary to move forward to resolve legal gaps and financial aspects. Physicians must adapt to changes and develop new communication strategies in a world where the unrestricted access to teleinformation makes patients self-perceived as experts.

News organizations and journalists around the world have seen an increase in threats and attacks against themselves and their work. In Latin America, this is heightened by the ongoing state of violence. To continue producing quality investigative journalism, professionals must find ways to deal with the situation. This study analyzes how journalists from small- and medium-sized outlets can perform their duties with greater security. Through 15 in-depth interviews with Latin American practitioners, this study aims to understand which safety measures are being adopted and their implications for the boundaries of journalism. Results illustrate that these professionals are assuming new roles by incorporating security measures into their daily routines. Consequently, these security procedures are merged with journalistic activity, invading other fields. Our interviewees highlighted that their news organizations are embracing collaboration and other sorts of collective actions such as advocacy to promote greater security. This study offers a new perspective on the boundaries of journalism that takes into consideration a set of tasks absorbed by journalists and news organizations that are often invisible and expands the literature on news safety in Latin America. We conclude with an agenda for future research.

PropósitoEste artículo presenta el Número Especial (SI, 34-1) de ARLA, editado (no exclusivamente) con los mejores artículos de la Conferencia Especializada de la Academy of Management, programada para abril de 2020 en la Ciudad de México. La pandemia COVID-19 obligó a su cancelación, pero se continuó la revisión por pares expertos y el trabajo editorial, para contribuir a la literatura emergente sobre Gestión y Sostenibilidad en América Latina.Diseño/metodología/enfoqueLos editores invitados contribuyeron con su experiencia con base en los procesos editoriales requeridos y revisiones de literatura enfocadas en Gestión y Sostenibilidad.RecomendacionesExisten grandes desafíos de gestión y sostenibilidad para los profesionales e investigadores de América Latina, lo que genera una necesidad cada vez más urgente de documentar sistemáticamente las similitudes y diferencias en los campos de la gestión y la sostenibilidad. Es así porque la región se ha visto afectada como pocas antes, durante y después de la pandemia. Por lo tanto, este número resume la literatura, presenta ocho nuevos estudios y ofrece sugerencias para futuras investigaciones.Limitaciones/implicaciones de la investigaciónLa gestión y la sostenibilidad en América Latina son temas amplios, con diferentes dimensiones y temáticas. Se trata de un aporte específico que deja mucho terreno por recorrer en los distintos subcampos del área, en metodologías de investigación y conclusiones.Originalidad/valorUna agenda para avanzar en el campo de la gestión y la sostenibilidad en América Latina, destacada por la disrupción del COVID-19. Además, se presentan ocho de las investigaciones más avanzadas en el campo, elegidas entre dos temas de un gran número de contribuciones a una reciente conferencia especializada organizada por la Academy of Management.

This stimulating collection holds the history of Latin America up to variety of social theories, asking how regional specialists might apply these constructs, and how the latter might be modified in view of Latin American experience.Leading off part 1, “Creating an Economy,” Jeremy Adelman considers the new institutionalism, which studies how institutions—from law to informal practice—can reduce transactions costs, and which asserts that stable property rights are essential for economic progress. Adelman welcomes the growing Latin Americanist literature in this school, but faults new institutionalism for ignoring actors’ pretransaction bargaining power.Paul Gootenberg considers Alexander Gerschenkron’s Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective, which emphasized the substitutability of institutions in the development of European economies. Gerschenkron found an heir in Albert Hirschman, who stressed developmental sequencing, but not stages. Gootenberg treats several comparative historical studies, though I don’t recognize my own, since he sees as its “central point” a “transmission” of structuralism from Romania to Latin America, an interpretation I rejected (Crafting the Third World, 1996, p. 222).Steven Topik examines the work of Karl Polanyi, best known for The Great Transformation (1944), which argues that the creation of a world market was as fundamental to the creation of the modern economy as the contemporaneous industrial revolution. Polanyi believed the self-regulating market was a fiction, and would not have approved of neoliberalism, but his influence on Latin American studies has been minimal.Veronica Montecinos and John Markoff are more concerned with economic actors than ideas. They argue that in recent decades neoclassical economics has not only overwhelmed its rivals but that its Latin American practitioners have increasingly replaced lawyers in powerful political positions. The authors consider networks relevant to the success of “technopols,” including ties formed in U.S. graduate schools and international financial agencies.In part 2, “The State and Democracy,” Fernando López-Alves examines Charles Tilly’s hypothesis that the nation-state in early modern Europe was the result of the interaction of revolution and state-building, and considers how this approach might apply to Argentina and Uruguay. López-Alves sees Tilly’s military-based coercion as crucial in South American state formation during the last part of the nineteenth century.Alan Knight examines the modern Mexican state from a Marxist perspective. He considers the “relative autonomy” of the state from class interests—problematized by Friedrich Engels and developed by Nicos Poulantzas. Knight notes that such autonomy waxed and waned as governments responded to international trends in the capitalist economy, but suggests Mexico might also be examined in a Tillyan framework, in which the state primarily serves the interests of its functionaries.Jorge Dominguez treats the early work of Samuel Huntington. In Political Order in Changing Societies (1968), Huntington stressed weak institutionalization, particularly of party structures, as a major obstacle for developing polities, and later hypothesized that political development was a reversible process. Dominguez believes that writers on dependency and bureaucratic authoritarianism should have heeded Huntington’s message on political parties.Samuel Valenzuela reassesses Barrington Moore’s thesis for Chile, where Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy has been applied by U.S. political scientists. Valenzuela’s thorough knowledge of Chile’s suffrage history allows him to challenge the Moore-derived notion that the landed elite, as embodied in the Conservative Party, were antidemocratic. He shows that, in order to blunt secularization and gain a religious peasantry’s support, Conservatives championed universal male suffrage from 1874. Landowners did not derive their income primarily from agriculture, and therefore didn’t have to extract surplus from inquilinos, as Moore’s thesis would imply.Part 3, “Living and Belonging,” begins with Miguel Angel Centeno’s theoretical essay examining “socialized self-discipline,” universally associated with modernity, but usually judged to be feebly developed in Latin America. Centeno shows how discipline is instilled through four institutions: prisons, armies, factories, and schools. It is hard to understand why he excludes churches from his critical disciplinary institutions, since these were overarchingly important for Weber.Robert Levine writes about Michel de Certeau, a Jesuit linguist and social theorist. De Certeau studied “resistance in everyday life to structures of domination.” But since he wrote little about Latin America, Levine largely has to speculate how this French theorist would have regarded discourses of Latin American regimes.Claudio Lomnitz’s closing article considers Benedict Anderson’s theory of nationalism in Imagined Communities, and best illustrates the promise of the editors’ approach. Anderson defines nationalism as “a specific form of communitarianism . . . [shaped by] print capitalism and colonial statecraft,” and holds that nationalism arose in the colonial world and spread to Europe. In his critique, Lomnitz shows the historical ambiguities of nación, and believes “Spanishness” over four centuries alternately focused on religiosity, descent (“race”), and geographic range. Lomnitz uses the Mexican case to challenge a theory partly based on Latin American data.One wonders why Weber’s “sultanistic” regimes theory, developed by Juan Linz and Houchang Chehabi, wasn’t included, but this volume is nonetheless wonderful fare to serve in graduate seminars.

The practice of collaboration in journalism is not new. The developments in information and communication technologies (ICTs) are understood by many scholars as the critical factor for collaborative journalism to flourish across newsrooms. By working together, practitioners can address the challenges of a profession in crisis as well as the need to produce quality investigative reporting. Much of the academic discussion regarding cooperative efforts in journalism has happened in the US and Europe. This paper aims to shed light on collaborative journalism outside this region, focusing on Latin America. To conduct our study, we looked at the literature concerning collaborative journalism in the Scopus and Scielo databases to build a survey that was shared among Latin American practitioners who worked on collaborative projects in recent years. Our findings show that Latin American news organisations are taking part or forming collaborative efforts to share a set of practices, processes, and motivations. However, their motivations are different from their Western counterparts, as Latin American journalists are looking for ways to fulfil the normative role of journalism in society and occupying spaces left by the mainstream media. By doing so, practitioners focus on topics and communities that are often misrepresented, forgotten, or underreported in the media. Finally, our paper concludes by suggesting a profile of news outlets working on collaborative projects across the region, and we provide some directions for future research.

PurposeListening to and conversing with stakeholders has become a basic requirement for the survival of any organization in a society with insistent demands for transparency and dialogue. The purpose of this paper is to examine how Latin American practitioners are using social media for corporate and networking purposes, and their perceptions about which social media activity is more relevant for organizational stakeholders.Design/methodology/approachA population of 803 public relations professionals from 18 Latin American countries working on different hierarchical levels, both in communication departments and agencies across the region, were surveyed as part of a larger online survey. For this research, five questions about social media usage have been included in the first edition of the Latin American Communication Monitor (LCM) project.FindingsThe study shows that despite the massive incorporation of social media into communication strategies of organizations, Latin American professionals report less intensive use of these collaborative channels than do peers in the Asia-Pacific, but they are in line with colleagues from Europe. Practitioners report a cautious optimism on the success achieved in the social media arena, as well as an insignificant use of these tools for professional networking purposes.Research limitations/implicationsThis paper touches only four sections of the LCM 2014/2015. Participant fatigue may have negatively impacted the quality of the data. A large sample of professionals was approached, but a much small number initiated and completed the online survey. This resulted in the lack of representation of some countries in the subcontinent. In the future, greater participation is needed to allow for a more comprehensive comparative analysis.Practical implicationsThis research provides a more in-depth look at the current state of public relations practice in Latin America and the use of social media channels to communicate with stakeholders. Even if social media continue to create unprecedented opportunities, social media platforms have not been widely adopted by professionals in the region, probably due to the lack of appropriate structures, cultures and strategies for participative modes of social media communication.Social implicationsThis dearth of knowledge about how PR professionals use social media affects the engagement process, and as a result, the reputation, legitimization, satisfaction with and trust in organizations. Without listening carefully to stakeholder needs, satisfying these needs and establishing a real conversation, organizations will not be able to attain the sought-after engagement that leads to a stable and lasting relation with the public.Originality/valueAlthough numerous articles on the situation of public relations in different Latin American countries have been published, this research is first attempt to investigate the use of social media channels in the subcontinent through opinions of a representative sample of professionals.

Twenty essays by major filmmakers and critics provide the first survey of the evolution of documentary film in Latin America. While acknowledging the political and historical weight of the documentary, the contributors are also concerned with the aesthetic dimensions of the medium and how Latin American practitioners have defined the boundaries of the form.

Reviewed by: El gobierno colectivo de la tierra en América Latina ed. by Alejandro Diez Enrique Mayer Alejandro Diez, ed. El gobierno colectivo de la tierra en América Latina. Lima: Fondo Editorial Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2017. 326 p. Illustrations, diagrams, maps, notes, bibliography. ISBN 978-612-317-319-7. This book is sponsored by the international Land Coalition (ILC), a global alliance of civil society and intergovernmental organizations working together to put people at the center of land governance, and published by the Catholic University of Peru. It is directed at the organizations and NGOs whose interests coincide broadly with those of ILC (which, according to its website, promotes "a just, equitable, and inclusive world in which land rights are secure and poverty is eradicated") and written in Spanish to ensure a broader access to its Latin American practitioners. It tackles the problem of how the commons are to be governed in a variety of contexts and the issue is communal land tenure and its governance. An overview is provided by Alejandro Diez in the lead article, followed by five case studies, two in Guatemala and one each in Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia. Each chapter deals with a different kind of social mix of people, geographical conditions, landscape issues, coupled to productive activities within the commons, focusing on issues of governance, its problems, and predictions of future trends. The Guatemalan cases deal with communities of refugees that were created as part of the resettlement programs at end of the war in Guatemala in 1966. Representing several different linguistic groups of Maya indigenous peoples, these refugees lived in the jungles during ten years of war and were given land in communal tenure in an area of agribusiness palm oil expansion. One study community resisted, while the other has almost been completely swallowed up by land grabbing practices. The Colombian case deals with ex-slave communities in the Cauca Valley of Colombia, who gained legal recognition in the 1991 constitution laws, but differ in terms of historical developments, social makeup, and local conditions from the Pacific tropical areas where the main Afro-descendant groups have organized autonomous ex-slave communities and for whom special legislation was originally created. An overview of communal management of lands in the Altiplano of Puno, Peru, provides an example of the consolidation of newly created communities as a result of the Agrarian Reform of 1969 and its subsequent developments. Finally, the Bolivian case deals with pasture rights in the highlands also created as a result of the demise of the hacienda system and the formation of local communities through their agrarian reform in 1953. Those pasture lands provide access for valley people's cattle whether they are members of the community or not and everyone pays for grazing rights. Despite the diversity of settings, a few key themes run coherently through the entire volume: the management and governance of the commons, including the local practices of conflict settlement. The cases were selected through a competition of proposals submitted by practitioners from Latin [End Page 229] America. Initial reports were peer reviewed and commented, which provided the opportunity for the authors to revise and prepare their papers for publication included in this volume. The process was supervised by the staff of the research arm of the Social Science Department at the Catholic University in Peru. Their authors are newcomers to social science writing and their ethnographic contributions most welcome. They share a common theoretical framework and cover all the issues in a systematic and organized manner and they explore threats and difficulties such as weaknesses in communal organization, conflicts with neighbors, and threats that come from the expansion of capitalist frontiers. The cases are interesting and unusual in that they depart from the classical peasant community studies that were part of the general ethnographies of the past 40 years. Contemporary contexts provide new information on how collective lands continue to be an important feature in Latin America. Communal land tenure systems are ubiquitous in Latin America and they cover a considerable part of what could be classified as more marginal lands that are neither flat, homogeneous, nor desirable for most forms...

This study develops models capable of finding empirical relations between social factors in practitioners’ private lives, that is to say, extra-organizational or external factors to the work environment that affect the career promotion of female professionals in public relations. The aim is to analyse some gender issues at a global level by exploring the Latin American subcontinent, where there is an accepted lack of knowledge. With that purpose, the focus is on the public relations practitioners’ care responsibilities (such as living with children or dependents) and if these responsibilities influence their opportunities for career development in Latin American countries. Quantitative data from 803 Latin American practitioners representing 18 countries were analysed through predictive multivariable analysis with data mining techniques, using hierarchical decision trees. The applied statistical method is valid to explain some of the extra-organizational factors that affect female career promotion in public relations and can be used for other studies. Results empirically found that family dependency and caring responsibilities affect the career opportunities of women, and that family responsibilities do not affect men’s chances to career promotion. Therefore, the predictive analysis statistically proves that gender can be a determinant factor for career promotion in these circumstances.

The practice of Dalcroze eurhythmics pedagogy crosses borders, arriving to Latin America both culturally and pedagogically under the notion of “creative assimilation” - a concept introduced by Cuban anthropologist and ethnomusicologist Fernando Ortiz y Fernández (1861-1969) in 1940. The practice of Dalcroze eurhythmics in Latin American countries is creatively assimilated by using traditional rhythms, instruments, and music genres within the teaching-learning process. The essence of experiencing music with a holistic approach and therefore, maintaining the essence of humanity, provides Dalcroze eurhythmics wi th the possibility to cross geographical, cultural and pedagogical borders. Moreover, Latin American practitioners face unique challenges in order to experience an effective teaching practice under specific cultural conditions whilst creatively assimilating the fundamental traits of Dalcroze eurhythmics pedagogy. In order to illustrate these ideas, the perspective of Latin American Dalcroze practitioners embodied in the two special issues of Dalcroze Connections published by the Dalcroze Society of America (2021-22), will be discussed.

In the US there is something of a palpable aversion to the consideration and adoption of the jurisprudential practices of our 'foreign friends'. Whether it is Canada to the north, Latin America to the south or our dear friends across the sea in the UK, the plain fact is, no matter how intelligently planned, decided and implemented, there simply seems to be no appetite for external influence. Perhaps we are missing an important culturally transmitted gene that allows for an open-minded assessment of the activities of transnational courts and legislatures as each pertain to advancing due process to correct and avoid error. It is, quite frankly, not something that we think much about. After all, jurisprudence in the US is exceptional — our Supreme Court justices have said so (Schehr, 2008). That American legal scholars and practitioners would prudishly ignore procedural and institutional innovations originating beyond domestic boundaries should come as little surprise to anyone who has studied twentieth and twenty-first century American jurisprudence.

In recent years, we have had the opportunity to attend regional meetings in Latin America as guests of the local dermatology training programs. Within the medical centers of these countries, dermatology is a prestigious speciality, and, as a result, trainees in these programs are called on to see a vast array of clinical problems. Not only do they commonly encounter those diseases of poverty and the tropics that American practitioners encounter only in textbooks, but they also function as respected consultants in well-equipped and well-staffed medical centers that offer many of the sophisticated services available in comparable referral centers in the United States. Moreover, since the number of training programs in dermatology is small, competition for residency positions is keen, and, consequently, dermatology attracts the brightest and the best.¹Yet, despite the vast array of clinical material to which they are exposed, what awaits these trainees in their own