Colonialism, Academic, Typography

Emergency medicine is a new academic discipline, as well as a recent independent clinical specialization with the specific principles of practice, education and research. It is also a very important segment of the overall health care and health system. Emergency medicine as a distinct specialty was introduced in the U.S. in 1970. Ten years later and relatively quickly emergency medicine was introduced in the health system in Bosnia and Herzegovina as a specialty with a special education program for specialist and a final exam. Compare the development of emergency medicine in Bosnia and Herzegovina with the trends of development of this discipline in the world as a specialization and an academic discipline. Identify specific problems and possible solutions and learn lessons from other countries. Reviewed are the literature data on the development of emergency medicine in the world, programs of undergraduate and postgraduate teaching, the organizational scheme of emergency centers and residency. This is then compared with data of the current status of emergency medicine as an academic discipline and a recognized specialization, in Bosnia and Herzegovina. There are substantial differences in the development of emergency medicine in the United States, European Union and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Although Bosnia and Herzegovina relatively early recognized specialty of emergency medicine in academia, it failed to mach the academic progress with the practical implementation. A&E departments in the Community Health Centers failed to meet the desired objectives even though they were led by specialists in emergency medicine. The main reason being the lack of space and equipment as well as staff needed to meet set standards of good clinical practice, education and research. Furthermore the Curriculum of undergraduate education and specialization does not match modern concept of educational programs that meet the principles set out in emergency medicine and learning through practice. The Development of emergency medicine as a separate specialization and independent academic discipline has had different way and pace of development, and there is no ideal model that can be applied in all countries. However experiences from countries with well developed emergency medicine, suggest that the model of the simultaneous development of emergency medicine as a distinct academic discipline on independent recognized residencies with a strong national association is the best way for the formation of an efficient health system. The establishment of Emergency centers--departments for emergency medicine at university and cantonal hospitals, introduction of emergency medicine as an academic discipline, implementation of specific post-graduate teaching and continuing medical education through appropriate courses, as well as academic development program for the teaching staff is the most important element of future development of this discipline. It would also contribute to it achieving the appropriate status in both the academic institutions and in practice within the health system of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Spirit, Spirituality, and Contemplative Method Mary Frohlich, RSCJ (bio) The goal of the “Evolving Methodologies in the Study of Spirituality” conference, held at the Antonianum in Rome in September 2019, was for spirituality scholars from both Latin (that is, Italian or Spanish speakers) and English-speaking worlds to converse and to learn from one another. In view of that goal, I begin by briefly identifying a few points of difference and convergence between the approaches to the study of spirituality that have developed in these two contexts, and then address those points as I present an overview of my own current approach to the study and teaching of spirituality. In regard to differences and convergences, I generally agree with the assessments recently offered by Rossano Zas Friz de Col.1 First, there is a definite convergence around the insistence that the study of spirituality begins from experience. In this regard, the difference between the more Latin language of “spiritual theology” and the more English usage of “spirituality” does not seem to be as great as it may first appear. Secondly, however the choice of “spiritual theology” as the discipline’s title in Latin contexts is an indicator that the conversation remains more firmly situated within the world of Christian theology, while the preference in the English-speaking world for referring to the discipline as “spirituality” indicates a choice to be situated within a much broader conversation of the humanities as a prelude to Christian theology. Thirdly, as Zas Friz has noted, the question of spirituality as self-implicating has received much more attention in the English conversation than in the Latin one.2 Meanwhile, in the United States, another new academic discipline that calls itself “contemplative studies”3 has come on the scene and has, I think, taken some of the wind out of the sails of efforts to establish spirituality as an academic discipline. Contemplative studies emerged primarily from those studying Buddhist and Vedic meditation practices, but from the beginning has also included some scholars of Christian contemplative practice. The contemplative studies movement has been more adept than we spirituality scholars have been in establishing itself in major secular universities, and it also has outstripped us in exploring the use of a range of first-person methodologies for studying spiritual practices and experiences. I will argue that we have much to learn from them. [End Page 31] Based on this background and the conference theme of “evolving methodologies,” the first part of this essay will discuss the relationship between spirituality and theology through development of an experienced-based perspective on human spirit and divine Spirit. The second part will directly address the question, “Why and how is spirituality self-implicating?” The third part will briefly examine the challenges of employing first-person and second-person research in spirituality, and then present an approach that I call “Contemplative Method.” HUMAN SPIRIT, DIVINE SPIRIT, SPIRITUALITY, AND THEOLOGY My goal in this first section is to describe an approach to the academic discipline of spirituality that begins with the exploration of spiritual experience, proceeds in a second step to a universalistic theology of the divine Spirit, and only in a third step (and in certain circumstances) may employ the full range of Christian doctrinal terminology. Thus, this approach does affirm a link between spirituality and theology but does so while retaining a significant level of independence of spirituality as an academic discipline from Christian theology as an academic discipline. The context of this approach is a world in which the global trend is for younger people to be less and less likely to identify with a religious group. In the United States, at least a third of those ages 18–29 reject affiliation with any religious group, and a far higher percentage do not participate in religion practice.4 Many regard Christian theology and church practice as systems of strange, antiquated, and fundamentally oppressive concepts. Yet many of the same people still remain attracted to “spirituality.” Thus, they are ripe for conversation and dialogue with those of us who claim spirituality as our field of study. Yet to engage them with any hope that they may grow in respect for the...

The differences between Chinese and American K-12 education systems have garnered significant attention, yet challenges persist in integrating their strengths. This paper analyzes the structures, methodologies, and impacts of the Chinese and American education systems, focusing on student interest cultivation, development, and future employment prospects. The analysis reveals that the Chinese system excels in academic rigor and discipline, but often at the expense of creativity and student well-being. Conversely, the American system fosters creativity and critical thinking, yet struggles with maintaining academic rigor and consistency across regions. Based on these findings, this paper suggests that China should incorporate more flexible, holistic educational approaches that encourage creativity and personal growth. At the same time, the United States could benefit from adopting elements of China’s emphasis on academic discipline and mastery of core subjects, particularly in STEM fields. Both countries should also enhance global perspectives and technology integration to better prepare students for the demands of the 21st century.

Museology and museum studies programs in the United States : Part one

Reviewed by: Seeking Modernity in the United States, 1900-1927 Huping Ling (bio) Weili Ye. Seeking Modernity in the United States, 1900-1927. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001. xii, 330 pp. Hardcover $49.50, ISBN 0-8047-3696-0. Since Yung Wing, the first Chinese male student to graduate from an American University (Yale, in 1854), the flow of Chinese students studying in the United States has never ceased. Following a brief interruption during the Cultural Revolution, the study-abroad movement reached a new high in 1979, after the normalization of relations between the People's Republic of China and the United States, which resulted in the largest wave of students coming to America from China. The increasing visibility of Chinese students in America has attracted the attention of scholars, many of whom are themselves Chinese who came here as students and who have since chosen the topic of Chinese students in the United States for their doctoral dissertations. Weili Ye's "Crossing the Cultures: The Experience of Chinese Students in the U.S.A. 1900-1925" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1989) and Jesse Chain Chou's "A Survey of Chinese Students in the United States, 1979-1987" (Ed.D. diss., Columbia University Teachers College, 1989), for [End Page 588] instance, are two good examples of a number of dissertations on Chinese students in the United States. Ye's Seeking Modernity in the United States, 1900-1927, based on her earlier dissertation work, is an important addition to the scholarship on this topic, after, for instance, Rose Hum Lee's "The Stranded Chinese in the United States" (Phylon, Summer 1958), Y. C. Wang's Chinese Intellectuals and the West, 1872-1940 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1966), and Leo A. Orleans' Chinese Students in America: Politics, Issues, and Numbers (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1988). Ye's book is divided into six topical chapters. Chapter ., "Student Associational Life and Chinese Nationalism," briefly discusses the establishment of Chinese student organizations—giving special attention to the Chinese Students' Alliance, the largest and most influential of all the Chinese student organizations in the United States at the time—and how they relate to the search by Chinese students for a modern identity. Initially, there was great enthusiasm among the members of these student organizations; however, this gradually faded as they became "disheartened spectators" at the failure of the constitutional movement in China to bring about constitutional government (p. 40). Chapter 2, "The Professionals: Predicaments and Promises," examines the professional lives of students and the contributions they made to China's modernization. In line with China's eager pursuit of industrialization, most Chinese students looked to the promise of technology, majoring in subjects such as engineering, the result being the education of the first generation of modern Chinese professionals. Meanwhile, American-educated sociologists also established sociology as an academic discipline in China. Chapter 3, "The Question of Race," deals with that issue in relation to Chinese students. It is noteworthy that the author here attempts to interweave the story of Chinese students into the complex fabric of Chinese immigration to the United States in general. There are unfortunate elitist overtones, however, in its treatment of Chinese laborers. Chapter 4, "The Women's Story, 1880s-1920s," discusses Chinese female students, whom Ye divides into three distinct generational groups. The first group consisted of only a tiny band of women studying to become doctors; the second largely entered the field of teaching; and the third broadened their career outlook to include professional fields traditionally perceived as "masculine." Ye's inclusion of female students in this study indicates her sensitivity to the importance of gender and how it affected the lives of the students. Chapter 5, "Between Morality and Romance," looks at the emotional world of the students. The issues of gender relationships, love, sexuality, and interracial marriage are examined in the context of the conflict between Chinese concepts of morality and Western attitudes toward romance. [End Page 589] Chapter 6, "The Seriousness of Recreation," examines two extracurricular activities of Chinese students: athletics and theater. Participation in sports, Ye believes, served to help Chinese students develop an appreciation for physical...

Northeast Asia consists of China, Japan, the two Koreas, the Russian Far East, and Mongolia. The heavyweight neighbors' spheres of influence (China, Japan, and Russia), along with that of the United States, overlap in Korea. Consequently, the world's heaviest concentration of military and economic capabilities is in Northeast Asia, with the three largest nuclear-weapons states (China, Russia, and the United States), three threshold nuclear-weapons states (North Korea, South Korea, and Japan), and the world's five largest economies (China, South Korea, Japan, the United States, and Russia). In the middle of this precarious and tough neighborhood, divided Korea stands as a strategic pivot. History and geography have consigned Korea to the position of a highly contested strategic crossroads, the site for over a century of recurrent collisions between great-power interests. Consequently, many view Northeast Asia as primed more for international conflict than for international peace, because this region replicates the global North-South divide with its sharp divergence between wealthy capitalist countries (the United States, Japan, and South Korea) and poor socialist or transitional countries (China, Russia, and North Korea).North Korean Review, however, is based on the premise that these countries will work together as they are increasingly interdependent in all major areas of national interest-national security, energy supply, and economic welfare. First, they have no other choice but to resolve the North Korean nuclear standoff through peaceful negotiations, because a nuclear North Korea poses a greater threat than that posed by the Middle East. Second, the Northeast Asian countries are likely to cooperate for their national energy security because this region is home for major energy consumers such as China, as well as major energy producers such as Russia. The United States is likely to support such a region's cooperation because the United States does not want these countries to depend on the Middle East oil too much. Third, scholars argue that Northeast Asia is a region with every possibility of becoming the best trading bloc in the future, because of Japanese capital and technology, Chinese labor, Russian natural resources, and the Korean work ethic. In addition, the Northeast Asian countries and the United States have already had close economic ties for many years and have been increasingly interdependent economically. These factors are likely to eventually compel the United States, China, Japan, Russia, and South Korea to collaborate on their security, energy, and economy, even if they have differences on these issues.NKR has played a defining role in the field of studies on the relations between North Korea and other countries since its Fall 2005 inaugural issue. The purpose of the journal is to provide the world with opportunities for improved understanding of North Korean relations with the United States and other countries. This international journal publishes the very best policy-oriented and multidisciplinary work on relations between North Korea and other countries. Economics, business, culture, history, politics, international relations, and other academic disciplines are represented. Who have been readers of NKR? Business executives, policy makers, diplomats, researchers, professors, students, and others who have an interest in Northeast Asian peace, energy supply, and economic welfare. It is strongly recommended that all academic and public libraries subscribe in order to provide relevant information about Northeast Asian peace and economic prosperity. Full-text articles of NKR are not available online through any library database.Finally, it gives me great pleasure to introduce briefly a wide variety of interesting articles contained in this issue of NKR. …

are living in a world that is facing multiple global challenges: the economic downturn, climate change, energy security, poverty, and ecosystem breakdown. Each of these challenges requires an unprecedented political response, a daunting prospect when viewed together. Our main difficulty is not that these challenges are insoluble--they are not. Instead, it is the fact that we are facing these modern-day challenges while using institutional frameworks and governmental structures that were designed for a post-World War II equilibrium. The existing international bodies responsible for tackling these current challenges are separate, disparate, and not sufficiently joined up. have the Group of 20 (G-20), the International Monetary Fund, and World Bank for the financial crisis; the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), G8, and Major Economies Forum for climate change; the International Energy Agency (IEA), and G8 for energy security; the UN Development Programme and World Bank for poverty; and the UN Convention on Biological Diversity for ecosystems. Each of these organizations is doing important work, but many are working with considerable constraint on issues that require a unified policy response. As a result, we have disconnected institutions responding to an interconnected An Interconnected World The interconnections between countries, regions, economies, and cultures are multiplying. Within national governments, the interconnections between policies across portfolios of energy, environment, transport, security, and foreign policy are increasing. Indeed, the recent financial crisis is a perfect illustration, beginning with the irresponsible lending of money to private homeowners in the United States and leading to a near global financial meltdown. This inter-connectedness has resulted in increased unemployment, increased national debt, reduced trade, and exacerbated poverty, which have reduced the ambition to tackle climate change. The current crisis has shown us, quite clearly, how a national or regional economic downturn can quickly and easily turn global and demand policy responses across a range of geographical and ministerial disciplines. serves as a warning that responses to the biggest global environmental challenges such as climate change or ecosystem loss cannot be tackled by environment ministers in isolation, but instead require enlightened policy interventions across the full range of ministerial portfolios from energy to economics and from finance to transport. Fundamentally, we require continued political leadership from the top of government, without which there is little hope of achieving meaningful solutions. Global Responses Meeting global challenges successfully will require unprecedented global coordination across the major economies. National and regional action is part of the solution, but to be successful, the right institutions and global governance structures will be needed in combination with political leadership from the major economies. have limped along over the past twenty to thirty years with institutions designed for a postwar world that are slow to respond and increasingly out of alignment with the challenges of the day. In parallel, on global governance, the G8 group of industrialized countries is increasingly being questioned as the political constellation best placed to deal with global issues. The debate around institutions and global governance is not new, but has been given political impetus by the comments of Brazilian president Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva who, when referring to the G-20 summit in Washington, DC, in 2008, said: We are talking about the G20 because the G8 doesn't have any more reason to exist; emerging economies have to be taken into consideration in today's globalised world. (1) Many observers see the move away from the G8 and toward the G-20 as inevitable. As the former UK G8 Sherpa to Tony Blair in 2005 and 2006, Lord Michael Jay, who was also the architect of the Glen-eagles G8 summit, said: It is hugely significant that at a time of global financial crisis it was the G20 that met in Washington and not the G8. …

At the beginning of the 1980s the North–South dialogue seems to have lost much of its momentum. The prevalent feeling is characterised by frustration about the dialogue's practical achievements, by growing cynicism as to its possibilities and by little hope in regard to new initiatives. The reasons for this view are manifold: the failure of major international conferences, the set-back in the negotiations on new international instruments, the standstill at the global level because of the hesitation of some countries, in particular the United States, which is reconsidering its development policy, and the deterioration of the social and economic situation in most developing countries. Given the growing economic difficulties in many industrialised states, the international climate for the necessary restructuring of the international economic order seems to have gradually worsened. This situation led the Brandt Commission to include in its report a proposal for a North–South summit conference of a limited number of heads of states or governments so as to create a new political impetus. This proposal materialised in the summit conference at Cancun, Mexico, convened by the Austrian Chancellor Bruno Kreisky and the Mexican President Lopes Portillo. One of the hoped-for results of the Cancun summit was to reach consensus on the opening of a “global round of negotiations”, which would provide the framework for a comprehensive effort within the United Nations towards a New International Economic Order (N.I.E.O.).

To think about queerness in Latina/o/x literature necessarily entails a consideration of how queerness is regarded within Latina/o/x cultural expressions. But within popular Latino/a/x queer expressions, it would be difficult not to invoke the image of Mexican singer/ and composer Juan Gabriel and his unabashed gestures and sensuality. Juan Gabriel became a symbol of Latino/a queer subjectivity by “being” and “being seen” as “queer” but never explicitly “coming out” in the US mainstream sense. His unwillingness to conform to masculine gendered expectations within Mexican ranchera music and his reluctance to accept globalized gay modalities in many respects continues to embody the Latina/o racialized sexual experience in the United States. “Queerness” herein refers to a position of being queer in defiance of social norms within a given sociopolitical context rather than articulating a fixed state with a single understanding of what it means to be queer. As an expression with political impetus, queer has the capacity to mobilize resistance against sexual and gender norms, and is as much a political identity as it is a way to read society. The “ness” in “queerness” enables queer’s ability to modify conventional analysis and enhance readings of social relations as difference but, more important, as relations of power. That is, queerness as a relational mode of analysis unfolds the disruption of hierarchical binaries such as man/woman, masculine/feminine, and homosexual/heterosexual. The emergence of Chicana lesbian theory in the 1980s and queer of color critique in literary and cultural studies signaled a significant shift in thinking queer within Latina/o/x culture and thinking race, ethnicity, and class as integral to queer analysis, which had been previously overlooked by queer scholarship. As such, queerness has come to be understood as a critical lens that is capable of reading antagonizing associations not only against what is deemed as the sexual norm but precisely the way in which sexuality interacts with racialized, gendered, and class-based discourses. As a corpus, Latina/o literature reflects a range of topics that grapple with what it means to be a US Latina/o and to hold an ambiguous place in American racial and cultural politics and an often nostalgic yet contentious relationship with Latin America. Queerness, specifically in relation to Latina/o literature, is to imagine and create between and beyond these rigid delineations of gay and lesbian identity but at the same time breaking with assumptions of US Latina/o/x experience as exclusively heteronormative. In this sense, queerness within Latina/o/x literature imparts an unequivocal motion of being, thinking, and feeling against the grain of both Latina/o patriarchal literary traditions and the white US literary canon.

The widespread public and political impetus, in the United States and elsewhere, to revamp social security to incorporate some form of individual accounts creates a time of opportunity. It is a time when people want to see the better exploitation of the available trade-off between risk and return and a time to reconsider the foundations of the social-security system so that it can much better serve its intended purpose as a manager of risks. As I argue in my new book, The New Financial Order: Risk in the 21st Century (Shiller, 2003), the time when we redesign social security ought to be a time when we carefully consider the fundamental intergenerational risk-management problem and define choices in individual accounts that reflect the true problem. It is also a time when we must make creative use of insights from behavioral economics that have emerged over the years. Finally, it is a time for an expanded exploitation of our new electronic information technology. We should not miss this opportunity. This means we must work now toward solving a complex constrained optimization problem where the objective is to maximize a social welfare function involving all generations and the constraints reflect the varying degrees of individual optimization ability, psychological underpinnings of human behavior, and modem information technology.

Politics has traditionally been a major concern of students. They manifest their concern in student political parties, movements, and organizations on local and national levels. Student political activity arouses national interest when street-cars are overturned, the educational system disrupted, or occasionally, when direct revolutionary action is taken. Governments in Turkey and Korea have been overthrown by students in recent years and Japan, Burma, Columbia, and other nations have been shaken by student demonstrations. Less dramatic, yet of importance, are the various international student and youth organizations which encompass practically all of the large national student movements. Furthermore, these international organizations reflect the concerns of national groups and at times provide them with ideological and political impetus. An analysis of the international student movement can provide some crucial information about student politics. The international student movement provides a substantial number of students with political and organizational experience, which is especially valuable in many of the developing nations. It gives an opportunity for exchanges of attitudes and ideas among students from many nations. The movement is also a battlefield in the Cold War. Both Russia and the United States, and more recently the Chinese and French, contend for the ideological and political loyalties of the world's students. They recognize the influence of this group in the political life of many nations. The ideological struggle of the Cold War is fought in microcosm in the international student movement. Occasion-

Prescriptions For Health Policy Paralysis

During the past few decades, there has been attacks directed towards the discipline of history especially from postmodernist scholars who continue to emphasize that history is simply a form of narrative with questionable objectivity. These writers construe history as human construct that signifies and facilitates our understanding of the past. Throughout the development in human societies, History was a fundamental pillar and was once conceived as a noble discipline reserved only for the Royal families and the Nobles surrounding them. However, the 21st century is recording one of the lowest points for the discipline which has increasingly come under threat from the transformations in the dynamics of the society fuelled by a deeply entrenched capitalist system that influences the choice of careers in modern day society. Consequently, History has been relegated to a selective subject as a complement to other disciplines that are perceived to have higher income capacities such as international studies and diplomacy. This paper therefore, attempts to examine the study of History as an academic discipline in the United States and Nigeria by identifying the causes for such diminishing popularity of History as an academic discipline.

A Review of: 
 Bridges, L.M. (2008). Who is not using the library? A comparison of undergraduate academic disciplines and library use. portal: Libraries and the Academy, 8(2), 187-196.
 
 Objective – To determine differences in undergraduate students' use of the physical library and virtual library by academic disciplines.
 
 Design – Online multiple-choice survey followed by focus groups and secondary online survey with open-ended questions.
 
 Setting – Oregon State University (OSU), a land-grant university with over 19,000 students located in Corvallis, Oregon, United States.
 
 Subjects – A random sample of 22% (n = 3,227) of the undergraduate population (n = 14,443), drawn by the registrar's office. Distance education and students at branch campuses were not included. From this pool, 949 usable survey responses (29% of the sample) were collected. The respondent demographics proved to be reasonably equivalent to those of the total undergraduate population in terms of class standing (freshman, sophomore, junior, or senior) and academic discipline.
 
 Methods – The study consisted of three phases. In phase one, an email invitation with a link to the four-item multiple choice online survey was sent to students in the sample population. Results were analyzed using Pearson chi-square tests to determine goodness of fit between the following variables: class standing and library visits, class standing and virtual library use, academic college and library visits, and academic college and virtual library use. When significant dependence was detected, researchers examined relationships between the specific groups (e.g., freshman and sophomore) and library use, and also compared each group to one another using odds ratios and by constructing 95% confidence intervals. 
 
 Phase two was intended to gather qualitative information from the 275 infrequent or non-users of the library in focus groups. However, researchers invited the 95 students in this group who had indicated a willingness to be contacted for further study, and only five students participated. The author therefore does not report on this limited data. 
 
 In phase three, researchers invited the 95 students who had self-reported as infrequent or non-users of the library and who had indicated a willingness to be contacted for further study to complete an online survey consisting of 36 open-ended questions. 38 students responded. Much of the data for phase three is reported on in a separate research article (Vondracek, 2007).
 
 Main Results – Results from phase one are reported in detail: in response to the question of how often undergraduates visit the physical library, 24.6% visited several times a year, 29.6% visited several times a month, 34% visited several times a week, 7.7% visited once or more per day, and 4% reported that they did not visit at all. Response to how often undergraduate students use the online library resources or website from outside the library were: 37.7% use them several times a year, 32.8% use them several times a month, 12% used them several times a week, 1.3% used them once or more per day, and 16.2% reported that they did not use them at all.
 
 No significant relationships were found between class standing and visits to the physical library or class standing and virtual library use.
 
 Researchers determined a significant relationship between academic college and visits to the physical library (p=0.003): College of Agriculture students were significantly less likely to visit the library than students from the Colleges of Health and Human Sciences, Liberal Arts, and Sciences.
 
 Researchers also determined a significant relationship between academic college and virtual library use (p=0.008): students in the College of Engineering were significantly less likely to use the virtual library resources than students in the College of Liberal Arts.
 
 The survey from phase three of this study asked students further questions about their library use and relevant results are discussed in this article. Five students from the College of Agriculture responded to the survey and all five students noted that they study at home. When asked about where they go for help with research, three reported that they ask a friend or peer, one noted a professor and the fifth did not respond to the question. Four engineering students responded to this survey; when asked about where they carry out online research, two responded that they use Google, one responded that he/she uses the library, and the fourth noted that he/she uses a building on campus.
 
 Conclusion – This study determined that College of Agriculture students were less likely to use the physical library than their counterparts in the Colleges of Health and Human Sciences, Liberal Arts, and Sciences, and that College of Engineering students were less likely to use the virtual library resources than students in the College of Liberal Arts.

The dissertation is the oldest consistent requirement for becoming a doctor in most academic disciplines in the United States. The dissertation, which has its roots in the 19th Century German educational system, is the central requisite for the highest level of educational attainment, the doctor of philosophy (Rosenberg, 1962). It is distinguished from pedagogical training, which happens at earlier stages in the educational process, and is the formal demonstration that a student has attained the skills necessary to independently produce relevant scientific research and scholarship. In the United States, the dissertation was first adopted as a requirement for the doctorate by Yale University in 1861 (Furniss, 1965) and quickly became the central exposition in the passage from student to doctor for most academic disciplines in most universities. Within psychology, completion of the dissertation has been central to training at the doctoral level since the Ph.D. degree was first granted to G. Stanley Hall in 1878 (Street, 1994). This requirement is common to most doctoral psychology students and, in that sense, might be seen as the unifying or binding activity for doctorial training in our field. In its most recent survey, the US Department of Education (2000) found that 46,010 doctoral degrees were granted in 1998. Almost 10% of those degrees (4,073) were Ph.D.s in psychology.