Cognitive effect of 7-min re-warm-up after half-time in under-16 soccer players

There is an ongoing debate on the potential negative effect of contact sport participation on long-term neurocognitive performance due to inherent exposure to concussive and subconcussive head impacts. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether cognitive ageing is exacerbated in elite soccer players compared to the general population. Neurocognitive performance in 6 domains was compared between 240 elite soccer players and a normative sample from the general population (n = 585) using the computerised test battery CNS Vital Signs. We used two-way factorial ANOVA to analyse the interaction between age groups (15-19, 20-29, 30-39, 40-49 years) and study population (female soccer players vs. norm sample) in their effects on neurocognitive performance. We found no significant interaction effect of age group and study population in five of six test domains. For processing speed, the effect of age was more pronounced in female soccer players (F = 16.89, p = .002). Further, there was a clear main effect of study population on neurocognitive performance with generally better scores in soccer players. Elite female soccer players generally performed better than the norm sample on tests of cognitive function, and further, cognitive ageing effects were similar in elite soccer players and controls in all but one domain. A lifespan approach may facilitate insightful future research regarding questions related to long-term neurocognitive health in contact sport athletes.

The burgeoning popularity of youth soccer in the United States has occurred with little discussion of the safety of soccer for young people. Several studies however, have suggested that repeated head blows that occur during soccer play may be associated with cognitive effects and neurologic sequelae. In this study, we employed newer imaging techniques to examine brain changes in younger soccer players. We hypothesized that soccer players would demonstrate evidence of neurologic injury consistent with multiple frontal head blows. High-resolution T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging scans were obtained from groups of college-level soccer players and nonplaying controls. Gray-matter density and volume were compared across groups, using voxel-based morphometry. Scans were performed in the Center for Imaging Research of the University of Cincinnati. Participants were recruited from the local community and were screened for psychiatric and medical illnesses as well as contraindications to magnetic resonance imaging participation. Differences in gray-matter density and volume. Soccer players showed decreased gray-matter density and volume in portions of the anterior temporal cortex bilaterally (BA 38). Our findings suggest the presence of neurologic sequelae of soccer play, even in college-level players. Although more study is necessary, these findings suggest that further safety equipment may be warranted, particularly for younger players.

This study examined the impact of sport-specific cognitive training (CT) on executive functions (EFs) in youth soccer players. Thirty-one athletes (13–15 years) participated, 13 in the intervention group (IG) and 18 in the control group (CG). The IG underwent an 8-week soccer-focused CT program, while the CG maintained regular training. The assessments included working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility tasks. The results revealed no significant improvements in EFs in the IG compared to those in the CG. Both groups showed enhanced cognitive flexibility, possibly due to general cognitive development or learning effects. The study suggested that an 8-week sport-specific CT may not enhance EFs in young soccer players, potentially due to a ceiling effect in highly skilled athletes. These findings should be considered when designing cognitive training programs for athletes, and future research could explore the optimal duration of such programs.

Purpose: To investigate the cognitive, physical, and perceptual effects of sleep restriction (SR) in soccer players following a night match. Methods: In a crossover design, nine male soccer players from the English Premier League 2 (age, 21 ± 5 years; height, 1.80 ± 0.75 m; body mass, 74.2 ± 6.8 kg) recorded their sleep quality and quantity with sleep logs and a subjective survey after two night matches (19:00); one where sleep duration was not altered (CON) and one where sleep was restricted by a later bed-time (SR). Countermovement jump height (CMJ), subjective wellbeing (1–5 likert scale for mood, stress, fatigue, sleep, and soreness), and cognitive function were measured at baseline and the morning following the match (+12 h; M + 1). Results: Bed-time was later in SR than CON (02:36 ± 0.17 vs. 22:43 ± 29; P = .0001; ηp2 = 0.999) and sleep duration was shorter in SR than CON (5.37 ± 0.16 vs. 8.59 h ± 0.36; P = .0001; ηp2 = 0.926). CMJ decreased by ~8% after the match in both SR and CON (P = .0001; ηp2 = 0.915) but there were no differences between the conditions (P > .05; ηp2 = 0.041–0.139). Wellbeing was rated worse after both matches (P = .0001; ηp2 = 0.949) but there were no differences between the trials (P > .05; ηp2 = 0.172–257). SR did not influence cognitive function (P > .05; interaction effects, ηp2 = 0.172–257). Conclusion: SR following a nighttime soccer match does not impair CMJ performance, subjective wellbeing, or cognitive function the following morning.

Animations, based on a streamed model, are a cost and bandwidth efficient way to transmit data to an end-user on the mobile network. They might also be enlightening and enjoyable to view. An experiment was performed to contrast different animations and video codings in terms of their cognitive and emotional effectiveness for spectating a football game on the mobile phone. Analysis shows that different renderings of the same model give differential results for understandability and enjoyment of a game. The conclusion is that more advanced renderings might be able to give an individually optimized blend between emotional and cognitive effectiveness.

This study analyzed the effects of with (WC) or without conducting a warm up on youth soccer players immediately before performing physical and cognitive tests. Fourteen youth soccer player (age 11.64 ± 0.50) participated in a counterbalanced cross-sectional study in which three conditions were tested: (a)basal lineal condition; (b)WC (immediately before the physical and cognitive tests); and (c)without WC (passive resting for 15min between the warm-up and physical and cognitive tests). A 30-m sprint test, countermovement jump, and psychomotor vigilance task were also applied. The WC revealed significant improvements in countermovement jump (p < .05), 30-m sprint test performance (p < .05), and reaction time in psychomotor vigilance task (p < .05) in comparison to basal lineal condition and without WC. A 15-min rest after a warm-up has a meaningfully decremental effect on the physical and cognitive readiness of youth soccer players, in comparison with when they warm-up immediately before the demands are imposed.

Heading is a unique and essential skill in soccer, and growing concern exists regarding the rate of head injuries among young soccer players. Traditional analysis procedures to estimate head impact forces experienced during soccer heading require subjects to perform multiple potentially harmful head-ball contacts. PURPOSE The purpose of this study was to design a soccer heading simulation model to safely determine the head impact forces and accelerations experienced by children and to examine how these impacts are influenced by ball size, temperature, and pressure. METHODS A soccer heading simulation model was developed using material and inertial properties from head cadaver data and anthropometric measurements. Coefficients of restitution were determined for a set of soccer balls (sizes 3, 4 and 5) under varying conditions of temperature and ball pressure. Male and female youth soccer players (N=32) representing three age groups (under 7, 8 to 11, and 12 to 16 years) were selected for the measurement of soccer ball kicking trajectories and head anthropometry, which served as inputs to the simulation model RESULTS: Coefficients of restitution at 28°C ranged from 0.76 to 0.80, and varied directly with temperature and pressure. Maximum ball velocity exceeded 18.5 m/s. Simulation results determined that ball temperature and pressure were inversely related to head-ball impact force and directly related to head acceleration across ball size. Simulations of the younger age groups heading a maximally kicked size 5 soccer ball (e.g. heading an oversized ball) created impact forces equivalent to over 6 times their body weight and increased head accelerations by 18 to 33%, compared with heading the age-rated ball. CONCLUSION Head-ball contacts during cold weather or with balls traveling in excess of 18 m/s may place youth soccer players at increased risk for neurologic and cognitive effects of head injury. It is important to use appropriate age-rated soccer balls given that potentially unsafe head impact forces and accelerations may occur when younger athletes head larger soccer balls.

We investigated the cognitive effects of exercising in the heat on the field players of two football teams in a series of three matches. Different rehydration and cooling strategies were used for one of the teams during the last two games. Cognitive functions were measured before, during and immediately after each football match, as well as core temperature, body mass, plasma osmolality and glucose levels, allowing an estimate of their differential impacts on cognition. The pattern of results suggests that mild-moderate dehydration during exercise in the heat (up to 2.5%) has no clear effect on cognitive function. Instead, plasma glucose and core temperature changes appear to be the main determinants: higher glucose was related to faster and less accurate performance, whereas core temperature rises had the opposite effect. The 50% correlation between plasma glucose and core temperatures observed during exercise in the heat may help to stabilize cognitive performance via their opposing effects. The glucose-like effects of sports drinks appear to be mediated by increased plasma glucose levels, because drinks effects became non-significant when plasma glucose levels were added to the models. The cooling intervention had only a beneficial effect on complex visuo-motor speed.

The high incidence of concussion in contact sports provides a unique opportunity to collect data to characterize mild traumatic brain injury. This paper outlines a macro to micro approach in which the organ level response of the head is analyzed through head acceleration data from human volunteers and the tissue level response is analyzed through finite element analysis of these data. The helmets of Virginia Tech football players are instrumented with multi-accelerometer measurement devices to record linear and rotational head accelerations for every impact during a game or practice. These impacts are then modeled using the Simulated Injury Monitor (SIMon) finite element head model. Cumulative strain damage measure was investigated for the impacts resulting in the high linear and rotational accelerations. The effect of head impacts on functional performance in football players is also investigated to identify any cognitive effects from repetitive sub-concussive impacts. A better understanding of the effects of head impacts and the mechanisms of brain injury will likely result in insight to future head injury prevention methods and cellular research on brain injury.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of two different exercise interventions in the morning on football-specific components of performance in the afternoon under conditions simulating a competition day. In the morning on 3 experimental days, 12 football players (age 24.1 ± 5.5 years) completed three different preload interventions that were applied in a counter-balanced order: (1) no intervention (NI); (2) moderate-intensive exercise (MI); and (3) high-intensive exercise (HI). The subjects performed the preload exercises, consisting of a small-sided game and repeated maximal sprints, from 10:00–11:00 a.m. At 3:00 p.m., the Bangsbo test (BT) was applied to examine the effects of the different morning interventions on football-specific endurance capacity. The results showed that the HI led to significantly higher blood-lactate concentrations (moderate to very large effect) and heart rates (very large to extremely large effect) compared to the MI. In addition, there was a significant measurement × intervention effect on concentrations of adrenalin and noradrenalin in the urine, which reached higher values immediately after the HI (very large effect) and MI (moderate effect) compared to NI. All effects disappeared by the time of the BT in the afternoon. During all trials, after the preload intervention, reaction time and critical flicker fusion frequency increased significantly compared to the baseline morning values (reaction time: small; critical flicker fusion: trivial to small effect), but no measurement × intervention interaction was found. During the BT, the mean total distance covered (trivial to small effect) and the pacing pattern did not differ significantly among the trials despite numerous small individual effects. We conclude that exercise interventions of various intensities in the morning have no general effect on football-specific components of performance in the afternoon despite significant metabolic, endocrinological and cognitive short-term effects. Coaches should consider individual preferences when prescribing competition-day procedures.

To determine whether exposure to repetitive head impacts over a single season negatively affects cognitive performance in collegiate contact sport athletes. This is a prospective cohort study at 3 Division I National Collegiate Athletic Association athletic programs. Participants were 214 Division I college varsity football and ice hockey players who wore instrumented helmets that recorded the acceleration-time history of the head following impact, and 45 noncontact sport athletes. All athletes were assessed prior to and shortly after the season with a cognitive screening battery (ImPACT) and a subgroup of athletes also were assessed with 7 measures from a neuropsychological test battery. Few cognitive differences were found between the athlete groups at the preseason or postseason assessments. However, a higher percentage of the contact sport athletes performed more poorly than predicted postseason on a measure of new learning (California Verbal Learning Test) compared to the noncontact athletes (24% vs 3.6%; p < 0.006). On 2 postseason cognitive measures (ImPACT Reaction Time and Trails 4/B), poorer performance was significantly associated with higher scores on several head impact exposure metrics. Repetitive head impacts over the course of a single season may negatively impact learning in some collegiate athletes. Further work is needed to assess whether such effects are short term or persistent.

Concussions are becoming better recognized because they are widely covered in the media. This is because researchers are collecting strong proof about how a concussion changes brain function. Experts now have information on long-lasting problems from repeated concussions. In addition, there can be short-term problems from only one concussion. However, often during contact sports athletes may get hit many times, but that injury does not meet current conditions for a concussion.1 These individual impacts—or hits—during a game do not cause loss of consciousness or change in brain function. The added effects of these smaller impacts are uncertain. In the article “Cognitive effects of one season of head impacts in a cohort of collegiate contact sport athletes,”2 the authors wanted to measure the effects of repeated impacts even though the individual “hits” did not cause problems with cognitive function that meet the conditions for a concussion. Cognitive function is the process of thinking, judgment, problem solving, and learning. The authors set out to test if repeated head impacts over a single season would hurt a person's cognitive performance. If they saw a change, they also wanted to see if there was a link to how many hits the athlete had. The authors took 214 Division I college football and hockey players and put a device in their helmets. This device recorded the force and time of impacts during the season. They compared these players to 45 noncontact college athletes such as runners and rowers. Any athlete who had a concussion either in the past or during the season was excluded from the study. Information about both the maximum force per impact and the number of impacts an athlete had was recorded. To study the cognitive effects of the impacts, the athletes were tested using computer tests to measure memory, …

There is a lack of information on the most appropriate way to assess exposure to sub-concussive head impacts from heading footballs In terms of relevance for future potential cognitive effects...

Large cohort studies have reported that former professional football players have an increased risk of mortality from neurodegenerative disease. Due to emerging concerns regarding the safety of heading the technique is now banned for players under 12. The aim of this systematic review was to evaluate the association between heading exposure and cognitive function in professional football players. A search strategy was devised and entered into seven electronic databases: MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science, PsycINFO, CENTRAL, SportDiscus and PEDro. The search identified 563 records. After screening records and applying the eligibility criteria, nine cross-sectional studies (n=925) were included in the review, investigating 452 current and 473 former players (859 males, 66 females). Six studies (n=595) reported evidence for an association between heading and impaired cognitive function, while three studies (n=330) reported no association. Diverse cognitive domains were investigated, which might underline the disparity in these results. The association between heading and cognitive function in professional football appears likely but remains inconclusive. Methodological heterogeneity and variability in the presentation of results limits the conclusions drawn. Prospective longitudinal studies using standardised methods, and including females, are required to provide evidence to support or refute an association.

We investigated the long-term cognitive effects of concussion in 19,261 members of the general population and a cohort of varsity American football players with a history of frequent head impacts, using tests that are known to be sensitive to small changes in performance. We asked 19,261 participants to complete a demographic questionnaire and 12 cognitive tests measuring aspects of executive function, including inhibitory control. We compared the performance of those reporting a history of concussion (post-concussion) to those reporting no history of concussion (non-concussed) on the cognitive battery and four non-cognitive variables. We used the results of this population-level study to predict the profile of cognitive performance in varsity American football players, who completed the same cognitive tasks. Post-concussion and non-concussed participants did not differ on 11 of the 12 cognitive tasks employed. However, on a test of inhibitory control based on the classic Stroop paradigm, post-concussion participants showed accuracy-related impairments specific to the incongruent conditions of the task. Post-concussion participants reported higher levels of anxiety, depression, and trouble concentrating. An entirely independent sample of 74 varsity American football players demonstrated the same pattern of impairment: compared to healthy controls, they scored significantly lower on the test of inhibitory control but were indistinguishable from controls on the 11 other tasks. Self-reported concussion is not associated with long-term general effects on cognitive function. Nevertheless, those who report at least one concussion and those who expose themselves to long-term frequent sport-related head impacts do have a modest, but statistically robust, deficit of inhibitory control.