Co-producing Sustainable Ocean Plans with Indigenous and traditional knowledge holders

During recent decades, role of traditional knowledge (TK) in biotechnology development has become increasingly important. The benefits resulting from TK exploration can be tremendous. Due its significant economic and healthcare contribution society, owners of TK (local and indigenous communities) should be sufficiently compensated for use of their knowledge and their rights on TK should also be properly protected. Contracts are considered be one of major means ensure fair benefit-sharing based on mutually agreed terms between TK users and holders. Contractual agreements are not novel in transactions involving access genetic resources and benefit sharing. The most famous and earliest case was Merc-INBio agreement. TK has always been only part of such agreements - usually mentioned under prior informed consent - or else it has simply been omitted. Indigenous peoples (or their representatives) have seldom become a party such contracts. Still, history of TK exploration revealed several more or less successful cases, where TK holders acted as rightful parties associated transfer of genetic resources. The International Cooperative Biodiversity Group (ICBG) Program was established in 1992 by National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF) and U.S. Agency for International Development (later replaced by Department of Agriculture (USDA)) run multidisciplinary projects addressing drug devlopment, biodiversity conservatio and economic growth. More than a dozen projects in 18 countries in Aisa, Africa and Latin America have been supported under Program. Seven International Cooperative Biodiversity Groups (awards) are currently being financed. The source of funding in ICBG projects can be from both public and private sectors. Another essential goal of Porgrams is to develop models for sustainable and equitable commercial use of biodiversity-rich ecosystems. According collaboration agreement, bioprospectors obtain access biological material (including genetic resources) and are required share benefits derived from use of these resources and associated TK with biosuppliers and TK holders. A critical point of ICBG Program is the development of ethically sound partnerships among diverse collaboration agreement is verified comply with principles of prior informed consent (PIC), access and benefir-sharing (ABS) and a number of intellectual property rights issues. Each project under ICBG is a kind of bridge or a collaborating forum that brings together interested parties for formulation of an agreement and provides a mechanism for negotiations. The ICBG Program ensres a relatively integrated and successful international licensing scheme of collaboration between indigenous communities, research institutions and private entities (U.S., international or multinational), which assists development of creative potential solutions for anti-biopiracy and efficient exploitation and sustainable use of biological resources and associated TK. An ICBG project usually involves a multinational pharmaceutical coporation, a nongovernmental organization, a reseach university and collaborating partners from source country (research institute, indigenous communities or their representatives). ICBG projects are characterized by direct involvement of TK holders, or their legal representatives in contractual agreement as rightful parties. Prior infromed consent and associated measures are a mandatory part of all ICBG projects. Nevertheless, this article points out difficulties TK holders and their representative may envounter and how they can overcome limitations in a contractual arrangement, such as an imbalance of bargaining power and difficulties in enforcement. In following section, we will address general structure and main features of ICBG progects. In second part of this article, we will discuss three contractual agreements of ICBG projects, including Peru-ICBG, Maya-ICBG and UIC-Vietnam-Laos-ICBG, and address their mechanisms of TK protection. In third part, we will summarize thes three programs. In fourth part, we will discuss advantages and flaws of contractual arrangement with regard TK protection. Finally, we will present our suggestions and solutions.

Ayurveda is getting its due recognition at worldwide forums due to its ancient philosophy even though the medical and scientific fraternity around the globe has a very strong opinion regarding the safety and efficacy of Ayurvedic medicines. The provisions of Intellectual Property Rights under the World Intellectual Property Organization and patents have drawn interest from many individuals and organizations seeking commercial benefits from Ayurvedic traditional knowledge. However there are numerous challenges related to protecting traditional medical knowledge with unclear explanations. Efforts to safeguard traditional medicine face a complex array of national and international policies and governance systems primarily designed to address therapeutic efficacy safety concerns and challenges to rights held by traditional knowledge holders. Traditional knowledge has been categorized into three classes 1. Traditional medical knowledge 2. Traditional agricultural knowledge 3. Traditional ecological knowledge. This text is an attempt to assist traditional medical knowledge holders government representatives and third-party collaborators considering intellectual property law issues specifically related to traditional medical knowledge. Whether traditional healing knowledge is documented can significantly impact intellectual property protection commercialization promotion of traditional medicine regulatory submissions and collaborations. Its crucial for traditional knowledge holders to be well-informed to protect their reputations and interests when engaging with third parties. This understanding can empower them to navigate the complexities of traditional medicine and intellectual property enabling informed decisions on how best to utilize their knowledge.

Background: Globally, health understanding and beliefs vary across sub-cultural groups, depending on geographical location. Increasingly, various parts of the world recognize these perspectives to offer culturally sensitive healthcare services at primary level. Understanding the indigenous perspectives of dysmenorrhea meaning from the custodians of knowledge holders may add to the value of literature that may be used to advocate humanized culturally sensitive healthcare. This article aimed to explore and describe the perspectives regarding the meaning of indigenous dysmenorrhea among Batlokwa traditional health practitioners (THPs) and indigenous knowledge holders (IKHs). Methods: A qualitative, explorative study with a modified photovoice design, which included photographs, interviews and lekgotla discussion was employed to engage THPs and IKHs residing in Botlokwa Limpopo province, South Africa. Initially, a purposive sampling technique was used to select the participants, followed by snowball sampling. The participants themselves analyzed the photographs and described their meaning during individual interview using the acronym “PHOTO”. The researchers employed thematic analysis of interviews and Lekgotla discussion, in which themes were identified, formulated and analyzed from the codified data set. Results: In total, eight women participated in the photovoice study. The findings showed that indigenous understanding of dysmenorrhea stems from the African belief about health and illness with special emphasis on importance of holistic meaning. To the THPs and IKHs dysmenorrhea was a broad and integrated trend of a normal or abnormal process of illness that occurs periodically during menstruation. Conclusions: The THP’s and IKH’s indigenous meaning of dysmenorrhea reflects physical, mental, emotional, social, environmental, political and economic dimensions. Therefore, dysmenorrhea should be understood from a holistic approach. With appropriate partnerships and processes in place, this knowledge may be well represented in dominant healthcare systems and health research.

Lack or inadequate implementation and enforcement of legal frameworks for accessing and benefit sharing arising from the use of traditional and indigenous knowledge is associated with sub-optimal exploitation of traditional medicine knowledge and related research outputs in many African countries. This study assessed the practice of protecting the rights of holders of traditional medicine knowledge, and identified challenges in regulating, registering and protecting traditional medicine based services, processes and products in Tanzania. Practice of protecting the rights of holders of traditional medicine knowledge in Tanzania was assessed through interviews with 12 knowledge holders and practitioners of traditional medicines, and 12 key informants from national regulatory authorities, and research and high learning institutions involved in traditional medicine research and development in Tanzania. Absence of frameworks for accessing and benefit sharing arising from the use of tradition medicine knowledge, mistrust and inadequate knowledge on procedures for protection of traditional medicine based intellectual property hampers the practice of protecting the rights of holders of traditional medicine knowledge in Tanzania. Costly and bureaucratic procedures are among the challenges encountered by knowledge holders and practitioners of tradition medicine in registration of their traditional medicine products and practices. Poor network relationship between holders of traditional medicine knowledge and research community slow down the progress of traditional medicine research and development. Lack of guidelines for regulation of traditional medicine research may be the result of overlapping roles of the National Institute for Medical Research and the Council of Traditional and Alternative Medicine. In Tanzania, the environment for protecting the rights of holders of traditional medicine knowledge is suboptimal. To stimulate exploitation of traditional medicine for economic growth, there is a need to develop and implement national and institutional frameworks for accessing and benefit sharing arising from the use of traditional knowledge.

This research focuses on traditional knowledge holders who teach Vāstu vidya or the knowledge of architecture online at a contemporary university in India. Efforts towards decolonizing have led universities to add content on traditional knowledge into course curricula. Typically, content is added to existing courses which are taught by academics. However, there is deep rooted and systemic perception that traditional knowledge is not scientific. The courses at Indian Institute of Technology-Hyderabad are unique as the curriculum is devised and taught by traditional knowledge holders, who have adapted their teaching to the online format. This study asks what university educators who teach architectural design in contemporary academies can learn from traditional knowledge holders. The research involved visiting traditional knowledge holders to discuss the online curriculum, their teaching approaches, Vāstu design principles, application of traditional building knowledge and visiting buildings or case studies including residences and temples. This paper contributes towards increasing awareness of the traditional knowledge system, its relevance to contemporary university teaching and adds empirical research that helps validate its value and significance for a broader audience.

The paper examines the role of traditional knowledge (TK) holders’ institutions in the realisation of components of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)-9 and 16. Using two case studies, from the kaya elders (Mijikenda community) and Mbeere traditional potters, the study found that TK holders’ institutions are essential, and can play pivotal roles in attaining aspects of the said SDGs. As key drivers of, and essential governance frameworks for innovation, they contribute to the creation, diffusion and application of innovation (a component of SDG 9); while the innovation they generate continues to replenish and strengthen them. Additionally, their role in promoting peace and justice, and an inclusive and practical approach to gender means that they can be instrumental in strengthening formal institutions, especially the intellectual property (IP) institutions (a component of SDG 16). As data repositories and governance frameworks, they have an impact on the prevalence, type and nature of entrepreneurial activities that TK holders can engage in.

Recognition and engagement of Indigenous Peoples and local communities (IP&LCs) and other traditional knowledge (TK) holders in formal biodiversity governance remain limited, despite their significant contribution to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity through their knowledge, innovations, practices, and land stewardship. We conducted the first global assessment of how the 195 countries that ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity self-report on this contribution based on a full content analysis of all of the 2 most recent national reports (NR5 and NR6). The number of countries self-reporting IP&LC and TK roles in the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity increased between the 2 reporting periods and exceeded 55% for NR6. The mention of IP&LC and TK contribution to cultivation and domestication was slightly higher; 59% of countries provided evidence of recognition of this contribution in their NR6. Reference to the holders themselves was much lower, even in the case of cultivation and domestication, and explicit evidence of IP&LC involvement in reporting was minimal, particularly in developed countries. Several reports, particularly European submissions, mentioned traditional land use or community-based practices but considered addressing IP&LCs and TK irrelevant due to terminology confusion. Ahead of the next reporting (NR7), due in 2026, and in line with the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, which recognizes IP&LCs and TK as integral to its goals, we urge governments to strengthen engagement with IP&LCs and other TK holders, develop and respect partnerships that incorporate their knowledge, practices, and rights, support IP&LC-led conservation, and build on these partnerships in monitoring and reporting on national progress. We aimed to support this process with short-term practical recommendations for upcoming reporting and longer-term strategic guidance and a dataset of illustrative quotes from the analyzed national reports as examples of good practice.

The survey of traditional knowledge related to Chinese materia medica resources is the important component and one of the innovative aspects of the fourth national survey of the Chinese materia medica resources. China has rich traditional knowledge of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and the comprehensive investigation of TCM traditional knowledge aims to promote conservation and sustainable use of Chinese materia medica resources. Building upon the field work of pilot investigations, this paper introduces the essential procedures and key methods for conducting the survey of traditional knowledge related to Chinese materia medica resources. The essential procedures are as follows. First is the preparation phrase. It is important to review all relevant literature and provide training to the survey teams so that they have clear understanding of the concept of traditional knowledge and master key survey methods. Second is the field investigation phrase. When conducting field investigations, survey teams should identify the traditional knowledge holders by using the 'snowball method', record the traditional knowledge after obtaining prior informed concerned from the traditional knowledge holders. Researchers should fill out the survey forms provided by the Technical Specification of the Fourth National Survey of Chinese Materia Medica Resources. Researchers should pay particular attention to the scope of traditional knowledge and the method of inheriting the knowledge, which are the key information for traditional knowledge holders and potential users to reach mutual agreed terms to achieve benefit sharing. Third is the data compilation and analysis phrase. Researchers should try to compile and edit the TCM traditional knowledge in accordance with intellectual property rights requirements so that the information collected through the national survey can serve as the basic data for the TCM traditional knowledge database. The key methods of the survey include regional division of Chinese materia medica resources, interview of key information holders and standardization of information.' In particular, using "snowball method" can effectively identify traditional knowledge holder in the targeted regions and ensuring traditional knowledge holders receiving prior informed concerned before sharing the information with researcher to make sure the rights of traditional knowledge holders are protected. Employing right survey methods is not only the key to obtain traditional knowledge related to Chinese materia medica resources, but also the pathway to fulfill the objectives of access and benefit sharing stipulated in Convention on Biological Resources. It will promote the legal protection of TCM traditional knowledge and conservation of TCM intangible, cultural heritage.

Global biological data poses particular challenges for organizing and managing intellectual property. Issues concerning the industrial property branch, such as patent protection, have generally not been the librarian's concern. However, for the librarian and information management professional specializing in the organization of biological knowledge, the knowledge domain includes intellectual resources eligible for industrial property rights protection. An intellectual resource can be deemed industrial property eligible for rights protection if the resource is a patentable invention and has an industrial application. Traditionally, libraries and natural history museums have been concerned primarily with the copyright branch of intellectual property as it pertains to access to intellectual resources. It is primarily the first sale doctrine and the fair use of copyrighted resources that enable libraries and museums to meet the educational and information organization and dissemination goals of their charter. With respect to the organization of biological knowledge, the intellectual property issues include the traditional issues surrounding the copyright branch as well as issues pertaining to industrial property protection. Access for current and future biological knowledge management has become more complicated. This is not to say that the intellectual property questions on the immediate horizon for biological knowledge management are necessarily new questions or are necessarily unique to the library and information science discipline. But the following issues concerning access to intellectual resources are new questions for library and information management practitioners and are of particular concern for those specializing in the organization of biological knowledge. The definition of biological objects is important for whether an intellectual resource falls under copyright protection or is eligible for industrial property protection. In other words, is the biological object a discovery or an invention? This definitional distinction is important because it affects whether the biological object is patentable and thus eligible for industrial property protection. That is, if the biological object is considered a discovery, then the biological object is not the scientist's creation. The creation of the scientist is the publication disclosing the discovery. Hence, copyright applies to the published findings and the protection of intellectual property rights is protection of the copyright. This protection is particularly important in biology where a person's name is associated as the authority for the first published treatment of a new species. On the other hand, if the biological object itself is considered a creation of the scientist, then the biological object is an invention and is a potentially patentable object. Whereas the scientist's publication disclosing the invention would fall under copyright protection, the issuance and protection of patents fall under the industrial property branch of intellectual property rights: the protection of intellectual property rights is protection of the industrial property, the invention. The classification of the biological object is not simply a matter of differing epistemological positions. A May 2002 Science article, "DuPont Ups the Ante on Use of Harvard's OncoMouse," details a recent intellectual property debate between private enterprise and academic scientific research where the biological object itself is a patented "mouse engineered to develop cancers." Another Science article, "Patents, Secrecy, and DNA," published in 2001, indicates "more than 25,000 DNA-based patents were issued by the end of 2000" on various genomics inventions, including patents for gene fragments and sequences. It is, as it were, a matter of the relations between publicly supported scientific research and commercial for-profit ventures in free-market capitalist economies. For the library and information management practitioner, the disposition of the biological object — whether it be discovery or invention — affects the approach to and management of access. For management of access to copyrighted creations, the first sale doctrine and fair use principle would certainly seem applicable guidelines. Although access to copyrighted creations becomes more complex when it involves property rights for physical objects in natural history museums. Museums may "own" (with caveats discussed below) the specimens in their collections but if these objects are digitized, the museums must claim copyright protection for the digital representations. Some museums may fear that even with the copyright protection regime, they may lose control over the value of their collections. In contrast, the organization of information to support patent protection of inventions would entail denying unauthorized access, as denial of access for unauthorized parties is the underlying assumption that makes patent protection possible. The Convention on Biological Diversity's "Report on the Role of Intellectual Property Rights in the Implementation of Access and Benefit-Sharing" (www.biodiv.org/doc/meetings/abs/abswg-01/official/abswg-01-04-en.doc) is exclusively concerned with the industrial property branch of intellectual property protection. The 2001 report makes plain that for international biological information networks, the most pressing intellectual property issues revolve around patents and patent procedures, adjudicatingcontesting claims for rights and protection, and trade agreements. All factor into decisions about the organization and management of biological knowledge, and all pertain to the commercial potential of biological resources. In addition, the Convention on Biological Diversity specifically focuses their attention on and makes recommendations for addressing the often-conflicting interests between developed and developing countries with respect to commercialization of biological resources. Natural history museums hold many specimens of species from around the world, as collectors from industrialized countries have aggressively gathered specimens from developing countries over the past 300 years. The potential financial consequences are enormous as many of these materials, such as botanical pharmaceuticals, are patentable. The Convention's Panel of Experts on Access and Benefit-Sharing identified four key intellectual property issues under their auspices: prior informed consent; traditional knowledge related to genetic resources; access and benefit-sharing agreements; and scope, prior art and monitoring. Library and information management practitioners would likely be concerned with all four, as each involves questions of information and knowledge organization and management. Prior informed consent pertains to incorporating patent application procedures for documenting "identification of the source of genetic material used in the development of subject matter which is to be protected by intellectual property rights" and "proof of the prior informed consent of the competent national authority of the provider country." Essentially, the panel maintained that holders of traditional knowledge and of the rights to innovations based on traditional knowledge must give informed consent prior to granting access to genetic resources, and that such consent must be documented. The panel's report on traditional knowledge related to genetic resources defines "traditional knowledge," discusses the limits of property protection for traditional knowledge and proposes the sui generis model for protection of traditional knowledge. Traditional knowledge related to genetic resources is defined as "manifestations of knowledge and innovation" evidenced in indigenous creative practices, classifications systems, empirical observations and environmental management practices. Because of the collective nature of and lack of systematic documentation about traditional knowledge, the panel considered whether intellectual property rights are applicable to traditional knowledge; as argued by pharmaceutical industry interests, the panel recognized that intellectual property rights, in particular patents, could be viewed as and used toward protection of traditional knowledge. The panel recommended implementation of sui generis systems for protection of traditional knowledge rights. Among their proposals for legislation were the recognition of ancestral community rights; recognition that intellectual property rights can be collective; and the "distinction between the rights over genetic resources (where vested in the State) and rights over knowledge associated with such resources (vested in local and indigenous customs)." Components of sui generis systems for protection could include systematic documentation of traditional knowledge, traditional knowledge registries and various patent and innovation systems, all of which present opportunities for library and information science management. The panel discusses various access and benefit-sharing agreements at length, highlighting various possible arrangements between countries, industries, ministries and legal apparatuses. Access, for the Convention's purposes, tends to mean access to the actual genetic or biological resources for cultivation, harvesting and exploitation, and benefit-sharing means the protection of and compensation for the holders of intellectual property rights to such genetic or biological resources. In other words, access and benefit-sharing agreements pertain primarily to legal and binding financial arrangements between interested parties across the globe. How such legal and financial agreements affect library and information management practitioners seems to depend upon the particular situations as determined by employers, be they governmental, non-profit or for-profit organizations. Related to, but different than, prior informed consent is prior art. The Convention's panel and the World Intellectual Property Organization's (WIPO) Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore are both exploring and advocating recognition that traditional knowledge be viewed as prior art. The categorization of traditional knowledge as prior art affords opportunities for library and information management practitioners to compile existing traditional knowledge literature; create registries for and repositories of traditional knowledge; and examine ways to improve search and access to traditional knowledge documents, collections and databases. This information could be organized around the species descriptions used in western taxonomy or in the taxonomy assigned by the holders of traditional knowledge about the species in the native environment. One of the most interesting intellectual property problems facing current and future biodiversity knowledge management concerns relations between developed and developing countries and involves repatriation of biological intellectual resources. While international and national policy decisions regarding repatriation are beyond the scope of the individual library and information management practitioner, the practitioner should be aware that repatriation law, agreements and treaties will have ramifications for organizing and providing access to biological resources. The global mission of many biodiversity projects to identify, name and classify the world's species certainly warrants attention to repatriation issues. The emphasis Global Biodiversity Information Facility ( www.gbif.org/GBIF_org/what_is_gbif) places on data repatriation suggests the issue is crucial for the successful organization and management of a global biodiversity information network. The repatriation of biological intellectual resources differs from the repatriation of refugees, of human remains and of cultural heritage objects typically housed in developed countries' museums and libraries. Whereas the actual persons, actual remains or actual cultural heritage objects are returned to their respective countries of origin, the actual biological specimens are not. Rather, as the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development's (OECD) working group on biological informatics points out, with respect to biodiversity resources, repatriation concerns the repatriation of data generated about the specimen. In other words, a data surrogate replaces the original biological specimen as the object repatriated. The original biological specimen is held and maintained by the natural history museum, organization or institution that generated the specimen data. In this manner, the natural history museum seems to serve a custodial role, as opposed to explicitly claiming ownership of the specimen, although claims for ownership seem implied through maintaining possession of the original biological specimen. Data repatriation poses an intriguing problem not only for governors, ministers and administrators of state, but also for scholars interested in globalization, the world economy, geopolitics and post-colonialism as data repatriation makes evident the historical, political milieu in which the present state of biological knowledge is immersed, and perhaps, from whence it originates. For data repatriation to be successful, the data repatriated must conform to internationally recognized standards and exist in formats of demonstrable value to the country of origin. Moreover, the replacement of the original specimen with its data surrogate must be satisfactory to all international parties involved. This question will probably be asked of natural history museums in developed countries: if the data surrogate be the virtual equivalent of the specimen, why not repatriate the specimen to the country of origin, generally a developing country, and maintain the surrogate in the developed country? In principle, unlike cultural artifacts, it would be possible to gather another specimen of the same species from its native environment. It is probably an understatement to remark that identifying, naming and classifying all of the world's species is a gargantuan, utopian goal. But that is the goal toward which many in the biological sciences devote their working lives. Achieving progress toward that goal necessitates significant contributions from many allied disciplines and practitioners, including those that organize and manage access to all of the actual current and possible future intellectual manifestations of biological knowledge. While much work remains to be done and many unknowns have yet to unfold, one thing is certain: where there are intellectual resources to organize and manage, there are intellectual property issues that affect how the work of library and information management practitioners proceed. We need to be aware of the intellectual property issues debated, the many parties and varied interests involved, and the organizational and managerial possibilities for enabling the desired type of access. This is part of our contribution toward knowledge of our vast world. Gwen L. Williams is currently enrolled in the Master's program at the Graduate School of Library and Information Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Every region of the world is confronted with ongoing ecosystem degradation, species extinctions, and the loss of cultural diversity and knowledge associated with indigenous peoples. We face a global biocultural extinction crisis. The proposition that traditional knowledge along with scientific understanding can inform approaches to solving practical conservation problems has been widely accepted in principle. Attempts to promote a more bilateral approach, however, are hampered by the lack of a common framework for integrating the two knowledge systems in a way that is coherent and useful. This problem can be addressed by drawing upon, as a case study, the principle elements of traditional knowledge and their practical application to governance as articulated by the Kuuku I’yu Northern Kaanju people of Cape York Peninsula, Australia. Four points of contact can help bridge traditional and scientific knowledge in addressing the biocultural crisis: post-normal science; conservation values and goals; land management; and sustainable development. Key insights that emerge from these considerations include the propositions that holders of traditional knowledge can be validly seen as members of the extended peer community needed to address post-normal science problems; that traditional knowledge provide guideposts to the positive values being lost from view by an increasingly urban-based society; that there are practical conservation benefits to be derived from adopting a “two-tool box” approach; and that traditional knowledge provides the basis for criteria to help discern for a given community and landscape the kinds of economic activities which are ecologically and culturally compatible. There are multiple benefits for society that arise from appropriate recognition of biocultural resources in legislation and decision making.

From the start of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Navajo Nation, Diné (Navajo) traditional knowledge holders (TKHs), such as medicine men and women and traditional practitioners, contributed their services and healing practices. Although TKHs are not always fully acknowledged in the western health care system, they have an established role to protect and promote the health of Diné people. To date, their roles in mitigating the COVID-19 pandemic have not been fully explored. The purpose of this research was to understand the social and cultural contexts of the COVID-19 pandemic and vaccines based on the roles and perspectives of Diné TKHs. A multi-investigator consensus analysis was conducted by six American Indian researchers using interviews with TKHs collected between December 2021–January 2022. The Hózhó Resilience Model was used as a framework to analyze the data using four parent themes: COVID-19, harmony and relationships, spirituality, and respect for self and discipline. These parent themes were further organized into promoters and/or barriers for 12 sub-themes that emerged from the data, such as traditional knowledge, Diné identity, and vaccine. Overall, the analysis showed key factors that could be applied in pandemic planning and public health mitigation efforts based on the cultural perspective of TKHs.

Traditional knowledge about fire and its effects held by indigenous people, who are connected to specific landscapes, holds promise for informing contemporary fire and fuels management strategies and augmenting knowledge and information derived from western science. In practice, however, inadequate means to organize and communicate this traditional knowledge with scientists and managers can limit its consideration in decisions, requiring novel approaches to interdisciplinary and cross-cultural communication and collaboration. We propose that Participatory Geographic Information Systems (PGIS) is one platform for the assemblage and communication of traditional knowledge vital to fire and fuels management, while preserving linkages to broader cultural contexts. We provide summaries of four preliminary case studies in the Intermountain West of North America to illustrate different potential applications of a PGIS tool in this context and describe some remaining challenges. Management and Policy Implications: Participatory Geographic Information Systems (PGIS) can offer a powerful approach for enhancing current decisionmaking by allowing for the integration of traditional and scientific knowledge systems with spatial environmental data in an interactive participatory process. Integrated data sets can allow traditional and scientific knowledge experts to share, explore, manage, analyze, and interpret multidimensional data in a common spatial context to develop more informed management decisions. Such combined data sets could provide a more comprehensive assessment of fire-related ecological change than is currently used in decisionmaking and enhance inclusion of effects on local resource utility values and areas of cultural significance. The use of a PGIS interface creates opportunities for traditional knowledge holders to share information and potential prescriptions while maintaining confidentiality. Knowledge integration efforts using PGIS as an organizational tool would help to bridge the communication gap that commonly exists between scientists, managers, and traditional knowledge holders as ecosystems continue to be altered through processes of land management and climate change.

This paper reports on an exploratory research work carried out aiming to identify the barriers in the usage of traditional medicines by the holders of the knowledge. The focus is on the usage of the traditional medicines by the homogenous people, Malayali tribe community at Shervaroy hills of Eastern Ghats. Semi-structured interviews were conducted among the tribe community of the area. Where the knowledge has been passed on from generations making the traditional medicinal knowledge strongly imbibed in their culture, the research findings divulged the reasons as to why in spite of having immense knowledge on traditional medicines these tribe community are opting for codified from of medicines. This report also explored the understanding of older generation in the context of holders of the traditional medicinal knowledge among the Malayali tribe community. The conclusion supports the implementation of existing policies stringently with recommendations so as to draw closer towards the three objectives enshrined in the Convention of Biodiversity and Biological Diversity Act, 2002. This paper contributes to the policy makers, pharmaceutical companies, non-governmental organizations and the holders of traditional medicinal knowledge so as to collaborate, in the process, protecting and promoting the traditional knowledge in medicinal plants.

Globally, there is a call to recognize and empower Indigenous Peoples and traditional knowledge holders’ leadership in ocean governance, yet the ensuing processes often maintain power inequities and colonial legacies. We propose eight recommendations for equitable, inclusive, and knowledge-based approaches to co-producing sustainable ocean plans with Indigenous and traditional knowledge holders. These are 1) recognizing rights, 2) acknowledging pluralism, 3) aligning policy frameworks, 4) building relationships, 5) prioritizing accessible data, 6) funding Indigenous-led research, 7) addressing intersectionality, and 8) pursuing iterative planning processes.

Human communities have always generated, refined and passed on knowledge from generation to generation. Such “traditional” knowledge” is often an important part of their cultural identities. Traditional knowledge encompasses the beliefs, knowledge, practices, innovations, arts, spirituality, and other forms of cultural experience and expression that belong to indigenous communities worldwide. Since the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, intellectual property has been considered a fundamental human right of all people. Only recently, however, has the need to protect, preserve and provide for the fair use of indigenous intellectual property ‘traditional knowledge’ entered the domestic and international debate on intellectual property rights. Non-indigenous groups, such as corporations, have been exploiting the traditional knowledge that has been developed by indigenous beings over centuries. However, the international community has sought to recognize and protect such traditional knowledge. Many developing countries, holders of traditional knowledge, and campaigning organizations are pressing in a multitude of fora for traditional knowledge to be better protected. Such pressure has led, for example, to the creation of an Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore in WIPO. Such knowledge and folklore is also being discussed within the framework of the CBD and in other international organizations such as UNCTAD, WHO, FAO and UNESCO. In addition, the Doha WTO Ministerial Declaration highlighted the need for further work in the TRIPS Council on protecting traditional knowledge.