Climate vulnerability and household energy poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa

In 2004 the United Nations University World Institute for Development Economics Research (UNU-WIDER) embarked on a large-scale research project on the ‘Impact of Globalization on the World’s Poor’ co-directed by Machiko Nissanke and Erik Thorbecke. The first conference was essentially conceptual in nature, meant to understand better the various mechanisms and channels through which globalization affects the poor either directly or indirectly. The other three conferences focused on each of the major regions of the developing world: Asia, Africa and Latin America. Theobjectivesofthisintroductionarethreefold:first,toreviewbrieflyhow the forces of globalization influence poverty in general; second, to describe and discuss the main transmission channels and mechanisms; and third to analyze the impact of globalization on Africa and present an overview of the six Africa case studies included in this issue. 1. The Impact of Globalization on the World’s Poor Globalization provides a strong potential for a major reduction in poverty in the developing world because it creates an environment conducive to fastereconomicgrowthandtransmissionofknowledge. 1 However,structural factors and policies within the world economy and national economies have impeded the full transmission of the benefits of the various channels of globalization for poverty reduction. In particular sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) hasbeenrelativelylessaffectedbytheforcesofglobalizationthanotherparts of the world. World income distribution continues to be very unequal and many poor countries particularly in Africa are stagnating. Moreover, there is much empirical evidence that openness contributes to more within-country

Rich in the dark: Natural resources and energy poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa

Electricity access is a challenge faced globally, especially in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), where over half of the world's energy-poor population is located. Energy data provided by evolving smart metering (SM) technologies, applied to energy access frameworks such as Sustainable Energy Access Planning (SEAP), can enable the planning, implementation, and maintenance of energy systems for energy-poor areas. This study aims to analyse such applicability of SM to the SEAP framework, where household (HH) energy data based on an SSA country's criteria for energy access is studied and defined into an energy profile, which then serves as input to a smart metering experiment comprising a household's electrical load, a smart meter that measures electricity usage, and a Meter Data Management System (MDMS) software that remotely collects the data through General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) communications. An analysis is performed on the applicability of the acquired energy data to the SEAP framework and over three exercises that explore the analysis and calculation of energy access indicators, demand forecasting via machine learning (ML), and the optimization and cost analysis of energy systems. The household's measured energy data not only applies to all the assessments in the SEAP framework but also reveals the prospect of generating data that can be further used on applications requiring a particular range of datasets. With these capabilities enabled, policymakers and energy planners can use the enhanced data to determine energy access indicators within a program, unlock data forecasting elements, and optimize energy systems when aspects like renewables, low emissions, sizing, and cost are concerned.

Research methodology This case study was developed using data from secondary sources. The data was collected from the organization’s website, annual reports, press releases, published reports and documents available on the internet. Case overview/synopsis According to the International Energy Agency’s (IEA) World Energy Outlook (WEO), 775 million people worldwide would not have access to electricity even by 2022, with the majority of them living in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (Cozzi et al., 2022). In SSA, energy poverty had been a serious issue over the years. According to the IEA, 600 million people lacked access to electricity in 2019, while 900 million people cooked with traditional fuels (Cozzi et al., 2022). A World Bank report from 2018 said many SSA countries had energy access levels of less than 25% (Cozzi et al., 2022). Energy poverty in SSA hampered sustainable development and economic growth. Despite significant efforts to address this poverty, Africa remained the continent with the lowest energy density in the world. Although solar and other energy-saving products were appealing, their adoption rates were modest, and their distribution strategies were not particularly effective. The lack of electricity exacerbated a number of socioeconomic problems, as it increased the demand for and use of wood fuel, which caused serious health problems and environmental harm. While working in Uganda, Katherine Lucey (Lucey) saw that having no electricity had negatively affected women’s health in particular because it was women who were responsible for taking care of the home. These effects were both direct and indirect. The women’s reliance on potentially harmful fuels for cooking, such as firewood and charcoal, resulted in their suffering from respiratory and eye problems, in addition to other health issues. Furthermore, the distribution of energy-saving and renewable energy items was seen as the domain of men, and there was an inherent gender bias in energy decisions. Women were not encouraged to participate in energy decisions, despite the fact that they were the ones managing the home and would gain from doing so. In addition, because there was no light after dusk, people worked less efficiently. Lucey saw the economic and social difficulties that electricity poverty caused for women in rural Africa. She also witnessed how the lives of a few families and organizations changed after they started using solar products. This motivated her to start Solar Sister with the mission of achieving a sustainable, scalable impact model for expanding access to clean energy and creating economic opportunities for women. Solar Sister collaborated with local women and women-centric organizations to leverage the existing network. Women were trained, provided all the necessary support and encouraged to become Solar Sister Entrepreneurs and sell solar products in their communities and earn a commission on each sale. To provide clean energy at their customers’ doorstep, the Solar Sister Entrepreneurs received a “business in a bag” – a start-up kit containing inventory, training and marketing assistance. Solar Sister’s business model empowered the women in SSA by providing them with an entrepreneurship opportunity and financial independence. Also, the use of solar products helped them shift from using hazardous conventional cooking fuels and lead a healthy life. The children in their households were able to study after sunset, and people in the community became more productive with access to clean energy. The COVID-19 pandemic outbreak, however, had a serious impact on Solar Sister. It found it challenging to mentor and encourage new business owners due to restrictions on travel and on group gatherings. The Solar Sisters were unable to do business outside the house either. Their source of income, which they relied on to support their families, was therefore impacted. The COVID-19 outbreak also slowed down the progress achieved by the community over the years and made household energy purchasing power worse. Furthermore, the organization was also grappling with other issues like limited access to capital, lack of awareness and infrastructural challenges. Another challenge lay in monitoring and evaluating the organization’s impact on the last mile. In the absence of standardized measurement tools and issues in determining the social impact of Solar Sister, it would be interesting to see what approach Lucey will take to measure the impact of Solar Sister on the society. What measurement tool/s will Lucey implement to gauge the social impact of Solar Sister? Complexity academic level This case is intended for use in PG/Executive-level programs as part of a course on Social Entrepreneurship and Sustainability.

There is a strong relationship between agricultural stagnation and poverty in sub-Saharan Africa. Much, though not all, of the solution for poverty alleviation depends on stimulating agricultural growth in Africa. Data collected by the World Bank, the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and the African governments, shows that most of Africa's poor live in rural areas and depend on agriculture for survival. The dependence is both direct in growing food and cash crops, and indirect by working on farms or by trading in agricultural inputs and products. Growth of agriculture, of agricultural production, and of agricultural incomes helps the rural poor, and hence alleviates poverty. It also helps the non-poor, in some cases more than the poor. In the few African countries which have implemented policy reforms consistently and reduced implicit taxation on agriculture and investment in agriculture, there has been some modest revival of agriculture growth, averaging between 3.5 to 5 percent for several years. Nigeria, Uganda, Tanzania, Benin, Guinea, and Mauritius represent these good agricultural performers. Unfortunately, in most countries of sub-Saharan Africa, agriculture has grown much more slowly than population, agricultural incomes have stagnated in real terms, or fallen. The major problems continue to be poor economic and agricultural policy, and inadequate public investment in infrastructure, rural education, agricultural services such as extension and research, and rural health. Poor policy and poor public investment have led to a lack of private investment in farming, farm input supply, and processing. Domestic markets have been lost to foreign imports, and export markets lost to countries in Asia, the Middle East and Latin America. The countries that have stopped discrimination against agriculture through improved policies and better investment show the way for sub-Saharan Africa as a whole, because it is in these countries in these years that rural poverty has been reduced. There is nevertheless a set of additional constraints facing the poorest rural inhabitants, that agricultural growth will help resolve only in the long run. Targeted measures are needed to address the problems of the poorest rural inhabitants, even in growing agricultural economies.

The sustainable use of clean and safe sources of energy is indeed a global challenge. Traditional and unsafe forms of energy use is predominant among households in sub-Saharan Africa. This is not only a threat to the environment, but also constitutes health risk to the population. In the Nigeria context, this study provides the first attempt to estimate household energy poverty status and also investigate the driving factors of household energy poverty status using the National Demographic Health Survey (NDHS) dataset. The analytical techniques adopted in this study are based on Multidimensional Energy Poverty Index (MEPI) and Tobit regression model. Our results show that national average MEPI was 0.38, suggesting that majority of the households are energy poor. Energy poverty is however found to be higher in rural areas than in urban areas. We also found that male-headed households, age, rural sector and northeast residents are found to be the energy poverty enhancing factors, while household income and credit access are energy poverty inhibiting factors. The study concludes that income smoothening among other energy poverty reduction interventions should be prioritized, especially among rural households in order to help them exit energy poverty trap.

This study explores how international energy law can help tackle the issue of energy poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa—a region rich in energy resources but still facing major challenges in providing reliable and affordable energy access. Although the area has significant reserves of fossil fuels and strong potential for renewable energy, it remains the most energy-poor region in the world. Using a qualitative and descriptive approach, the paper reviews scholarly research, legal texts, and policy documents to assess how international legal can support fair energy distribution and promote sustainable growth. It discusses different ways of understanding energy poverty, from economic and social views to justice-oriented frameworks and evaluates the relevance of major legal instruments such as Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG 7), the International Energy Charter (IEC), and the African Energy Commission (AFREC). The analysis shows that while these legal frameworks provide valuable guidance, they are often inconsistent or poorly applied in practice, especially in Sub Sahara Africa settings. Overcoming energy poverty in the region will require stronger legal systems, better cooperation between countries, more inclusive policymaking, and focused investments in small-scale, sustainable energy projects. This paper adds to the wider discussion on energy justice and international law by showing both the opportunities and limits of legal solutions in addressing energy inequality.

This paper examined the nexus among financial depth, institutional quality and poverty in sub-Saharan Africa. The objectives of this paper are to examine the relationship between financial depth and poverty in sub-Saharan Africa and also to investigate the interaction effect of financial depth and institutional quality on poverty in sub-Saharan Africa. A panel of 32 countries in the region for a period of 2000-2023 was used due to data availability. Stata 17 was used to estimate a two-step system GMM. In this regard, an evidence that financial depth has reduce poverty in sub-Saharan Africa was established. Also, it was found that the interaction effect of financial depth and institutional quality (control of corruption) has reduce poverty in sub-Saharan Africa. Furthermore, human capital has reduced poverty in sub-Saharan Africa over the period of study. Based on the findings, it is recommended that the monetary authorities should give more credit facilities to the private sector in order to significantly reduce poverty in sub-Saharan Africa. It is equally recommended that strong institutions, including fighting corruption should be intensified by the government in order to significantly alleviate poverty in sub-Saharan Africa. More funding should be made available by the government to the education sector in sub-Saharan Africa in order to significantly reduce poverty.

Persistent low electricity access continues to plague Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and has been made more obvious due to the precarious nature of adopted energisation schemes across the region. The absence of resilient electrification schemes within most countries in SSA portends grave danger for the region. Regional cooperation (like the integrated European Union (EU) electricity market) can guarantee stable, secure, and affordable electricity supply across regions when properly regulated. However, such a template as is obtainable in Europe may be impossible to replicate within SSA owing to the peculiar problems, local controversies and very wide variation in regional electrification statistics that exist within the region. This research work pertinently examines the power pools within SSA and argues that improved regional cooperation, especially in tackling the issue of energy poverty and achieving “universal energy access (SDG 7)”, should be pursued on the platform of national energy sufficiency. This argument draws extensively from the geopolitics within the region by different actors and the impact of national interests on regional cooperation. While we do not seek to oppose regional cooperation in electricity trading, we emphasize the need for nations within the region to strive for some level of national energy security through carefully crafted policies and road maps that resonate with their local realities. Regional cooperation should strive to standardise electricity access benchmarks and facilitate technology transfer through existing or improved instruments rather than pushing for more integrated electricity networks.

We assume that the undernourishment or starvation continued in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) because there the misery persisted. Poverty reduction is the only way to the end hunger in Africa. Also, for an agricultural country in SSA the best way to solve the problem of poverty is through agricultural development. Our analysis is based upon a sample of nine countries in SSA, so called SSA – 9. SSA has around 47,5 percent of rural population in extreme poverty while between 1990 and 2005 when food prices were stable and low, extreme rural poverty in SSA involved around 64.6 percent of population. Thus, we have built up a model trying to answer to the question of how the agricultural gears in SSA – 9 were moving between 1990 and 2005 and assess how the agricultural growth could reduce rural poverty. We used a system of recursive rather than simultaneous equations: a recursive model is a special case of an equation system where the endogenous variables are determined one at a time in sequence. The most important result is that the main tools that had a strong relation with poverty reduction in SSA – 9 were legislation on property rights (PR), access to the credit system, Human capital and infrastructure.

Purpose This study aims to analyze the effects of migrant remittances on energy poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), examining both direct effects and the critical, non-linear role played by structural factors financial development and renewable energy investment as threshold conditions. It further investigates the disparities in these effects between urban and rural areas. Design/methodology/approach This research uses panel data from 37 SSA countries from 2005 to 2021. This study uses a bias-corrected method of moments estimator and a dynamic panel threshold model to analyze the non-linear effects of remittances, conditioned by financial development and renewable energy investment. Findings Migrant remittances have a direct, significant effect on reducing energy poverty overall and in both urban and rural areas, with a stronger effect observed in urban settings. Crucially, this study identifies significant threshold effects. Beyond a financial development index threshold of 10.87, remittances have a significantly stronger positive impact on energy access. Similarly, after renewable energy investment surpasses 15.07% of total energy investment, the capacity of remittances to reduce energy poverty is greatly amplified. Originality/value This paper uses a threshold regression framework to demonstrate that the effectiveness of remittances in alleviating energy poverty in SSA is critically dependent on structural factors. It moves beyond linear analysis and introduces investment in renewable energy as a novel transmission channel, providing new insights for policy targeting.

Background: Ambitious goals have been set to eradicate malaria by the year 2040. Given the high poverty levels and the intense levels of malaria transmission in sub-Saharan Africa, suppressing malaria in rural agricultural communities in these regions will be one of the greatest challenges to achieving malaria eradication. This study has two objectives. The first is to estimate how eradicating malaria by 2040 would affect agricultural households in sub-Saharan Africa. The second is to identify where additional research is needed to develop better estimates of how eradicating malaria by 2040 would affect those households. Methods: Using agricultural census data and malaria morbidity data, we developed estimates of the number of malaria cases in 2018 among agricultural households with fewer than 10 hectares of land for 35 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. By combining these estimates with additional evidence from the literature, we analyzed how achieving malaria eradication by 2040 would affect indicators related to four Sustainable Development Goals: health, poverty, education and gender equality. Results: Our analysis found that achieving malaria eradication by 2040 would prevent approximately 841 million cases of malaria and thereby decrease the number of lost workdays among agricultural households by approximately 3.2 billion days. Eradicating malaria by 2040 would also increase the number of school days attended by children by 1.5 billion days while also reducing the number of caregiving days provided by women for malaria cases by approximately 1.1 billion days. Conclusions: This article analyzes the impact of eradicating malaria among agricultural households in sub-Saharan Africa using indicators related to four of the Sustainable Development Goals. Enhanced data collection efforts related to these four indicators would facilitate more rigorous estimates of how eradicating malaria would affect these indicators over the next two decades.

Background: Ambitious goals have been set to eradicate malaria by the year 2040. Given the high poverty levels and the intense levels of malaria transmission in sub-Saharan Africa, suppressing malaria in rural agricultural communities in these regions will be one of the greatest challenges to achieving malaria eradication. This study has two objectives. The first is to estimate how eradicating malaria by 2040 would affect agricultural households in sub-Saharan Africa. The second is to identify where additional research is needed to develop better estimates of how eradicating malaria by 2040 would affect those households.Methods: Using agricultural census data and malaria morbidity data, we developed estimates of the number of malaria cases in 2018 among agricultural households with fewer than 10 hectares of land for 35 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. By combining these estimates with additional evidence from the literature, we analyzed how achieving malaria eradication by 2040 would affect indicators related to four Sustainable Development Goals: health, poverty, education and gender equality.Results: Our analysis found that achieving malaria eradication by 2040 would prevent approximately 841 million cases of malaria and thereby decrease the number of lost workdays among agricultural households by approximately 3.2 billion days. Eradicating malaria by 2040 would also increase the number of school days attended by children by 1.5 billion days while also reducing the number of caregiving days provided by women for malaria cases by approximately 1.1 billion days.Conclusions: This article analyzes the impact of eradicating malaria among agricultural households in sub-Saharan Africa using indicators related to four of the Sustainable Development Goals. Enhanced data collection efforts related to these four indicators would facilitate more rigorous estimates of how eradicating malaria would affect these indicators over the next two decades.

Africa’s energy access story reflects the paradox of plenty. With almost unlimited solar potential estimated to be 10 terawatts, abundant hydro (350 Gigawatts), wind (110 Gigawatts), and geothermal (15 Gigawatts), West, Central, and East Africa have electricity access rate of 47%, 25%, and 23% respectively. Indeed, energy access in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is estimated to be 50%. In a rural part of SSA, access rate is about 18%. Bridging the gap between the renewable energy potential and universal access to electricity will require an annual investment of $55 billion according to the African Progress Panel. With existing commitments from Development Partners, and Climate Investment funds, Africa requires an annual investment of $55 billion according to the African Progress Panel. With existing commitments from Development Partners, and Climate-related funds, SSA has an annual investment gap of $55 billion according to the African Progress Panel. With existing commitments from Development Partners, and Climate Investment funds, Africa requires an annual investment of $38 billion. This represents 31% of annual oil rents to SSA. The study recommends that SSA countries need to prioritise petroleum revenue expenditure to focus on renewable energy, and other areas such as education, health, infrastructure based on needs assessment. In addition, SSA countries need to create a benign business environment for private sector investments and support creative payment system modelled on the mobile money system to encourage rural access to off-grid renewable energy systems.

Access to reliable sources of energy can have tremendous impact on the livelihoods of rural people, yet two-thirds of people living in sub-Saharan Africa have no access to electricity. Pay-As-You-Go solar home systems have been touted in the solar industry as the panacea to affordable and clean renewable energy for remote rural areas. The paper critically reviews the corpus of work on Pay-As-You-Go solar home systems' adoption, usage, role, and impact in addressing energy poverty in rural communities of sub-Saharan Africa. The review evaluates academic and non-academic literature the success of the Pay-As-You-Go solar home system financing model in addressing the need for reliable sources of energy in rural sub-Saharan Africa. Using Google Scholar, Scopus, and Semantic Scholar to select peer-reviewed journal articles focused on Pay-As-You-Go solar home systems, the study critically analyses the existing literature on Pay-As-You-Go solar home systems over the years and unearths various views on the subject. The study concluded that the Pay-As-You-Go platform on solar home systems has been playing a pivotal rôle in the energy matrix of rural Su-Saharan Africa and consequently has been instrumental in increasing solar usage and reducing energy poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa.