Abstract
Citrinin (CIT) is a mycotoxin produced by different species of Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Monascus. CIT can contaminate a wide range of foods and feeds at any time during the pre-harvest, harvest, and post-harvest stages. CIT can be usually found in beans, fruits, fruit and vegetable juices, herbs and spices, and dairy products, as well as red mold rice. CIT exerts nephrotoxic and genotoxic effects in both humans and animals, thereby raising concerns regarding the consumption of CIT-contaminated food and feed. Hence, to minimize the risk of CIT contamination in food and feed, understanding the incidence of CIT occurrence, its sources, and biosynthetic pathways could assist in the effective implementation of detection and mitigation measures. Therefore, this review aims to shed light on sources of CIT, its prevalence in food and feed, biosynthetic pathways, and genes involved, with a major focus on detection and management strategies to ensure the safety and security of food and feed.
Highlights
Mycotoxins are poisonous secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi infesting crops and grain before harvest in the field or after harvest during storage [1]
It was reported that the three fungal genera Penicillium (P. citrinum, P. verrucosum, and P. expansum), Aspergillus (A. carneus, A. niveus, and A. terreus), and Monascus (M. ruber) could produce CIT [4,5,6,7]
CIT has been found in food colorings traditionally made in Asia from rice fermented with Monascus purpureus (“red mold rice”), conventionally used for meat preservation and food coloring [4,8]
Summary
Mycotoxins are poisonous secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi infesting crops and grain before harvest in the field or after harvest during storage [1]. Citrinin (CIT) is a polyketide-derived mycotoxin most commonly occurring during storage [2,3,4]. Hetherington and Raistrick isolated CIT for the first time from a culture of Penicillium citrinum in 1930s [5]. It was reported that the three fungal genera Penicillium (P. citrinum, P. verrucosum, and P. expansum), Aspergillus (A. carneus, A. niveus, and A. terreus), and Monascus (M. ruber) could produce CIT [4,5,6,7]. CIT has been found in food colorings traditionally made in Asia from rice fermented with Monascus purpureus (“red mold rice”), conventionally used for meat preservation and food coloring [4,8]
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