Chitosan, Trichoderma and Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles: A Triad for Plant Growth Promotion and Disease Management

Comparative evaluation of Stainless-steel wires and brackets coated with nanoparticles of Chitosan or Zinc oxide upon friction: An in vitro study

Introduction: The antimicrobial activity and physical properties of Vinyl Siloxane Ether (VSE) impression material, such as dimensional stability, flow, and setting time, play a crucial role in the success of fixed prosthodontics. During impression making, the impression material is exposed to infected blood and saliva, which are potential sources of cross-contamination. Cross-contamination can be decreased or minimised when antimicrobial agents are added to the impression material. The efficacy of nanoparticles like silver, titanium, zinc oxide, and chitosan as antimicrobial agents is continuously researched in dentistry. These particles have the benefit of being small and possessing effective antibacterial characteristics due to their vast surface area, which creates an effective interaction with microbes. Aim: To evaluate and compare the antimicrobial activity and physical properties of VSE impression material incorporated with various concentrations (0.0, 1.0, and 2.5 wt.%) of zinc oxide and chitosan nanoparticles. Materials and Methods: This is an in-vitro study conducted in the Department of Prosthodontics at KIMS Dental College and Hospital, Amalapuram, Andhra Pradesh, India. Ethical Review Board for clinical trials (Material protocol no. 020/ KIMS DENTAL/2022). The study was conducted in the month of June and July of 2022 year. A total of 252 samples were fabricated with VSE impression material and divided into two groups for antimicrobial activity (Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and the fungus Candida albicans) and physical properties (dimensional stability, flow, setting time) with 126 samples in each group, respectively. The sample size was estimated using G Power One software with a power of 91% and an alpha error of 5%. Antimicrobial activity was determined using the disk diffusion method, dimensional stability was determined with a stereomicroscope, setting time with a Gillmore apparatus, and flow with a vernier caliper. Data were subjected to one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) (p-value <0.05), T tests, and Tukey post-hoc tests, respectively. A p-value of ≤0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: Significant changes were noted against Staphylococcus aureus bacteria when VSE was incorporated with 2.5% zinc oxide nanoparticles (p-value=0.010). The highest setting time was found for 2.5% chitosan, and the lowest setting time was for 2.5% zinc oxide (p-value <0.001). Decreased flow was observed with 2.5% chitosan, whereas increased flow was observed with 1% and 2.5% of zinc oxide nanoparticles (p-value=0.016). Enhanced dimensional stability was seen when the impression material was incorporated with 1% and 2.5% of ZnO nanoparticles (p-value <0.001). Conclusion: Based on this in-vitro study, zinc oxide and chitosan nanoparticles can be incorporated into VSE impression material as antimicrobial agents without adversely affecting their properties.

Recently, nanoparticles have been widely used in agricultural pest control as a secure substitute for pesticides. However, the effect of nanoparticles on controlling the subterranean termite Odontotermes formosanus (O. formosanus) has not been studied yet. Consequently, this study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of some nanomaterials in controlling O. formosanus. The results showed that zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs), titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2NPs), and chitosan nanoparticles (CsNPs) biosynthesized using the culture filtrate of Scedosporium apiospermum (S. apiospermum) had an effective role in controlling O. formosanus. Moreover, the mortality rate of O. formosanus after 48 h of treatment with ZnONPs, TiO2NPs, and CsNPs at a 1000 µg/mL concentration was 100%, 100%, and 97.67%, respectively. Furthermore, using ZnONPs, TiO2NPs, and CsNPs on O. formosanus resulted in morpho-histological variations in the normal structure, leading to its death. X-ray diffraction, UV-vis spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, energy dispersive spectroscopy, and the Zeta potential were used to characterize the biosynthesis of ZnONPs, TiO2NPs, and CsNPs with strong activity against O. formosanus termites. Overall, the results of this investigation suggest that biosynthesized ZnONPs, TiO2NPs, and CsNPs have enormous potential for use as innovative, ecologically safe pesticides for O. formosanus control.

Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) has emerged as a powerful tool in the rapid and accurate identification of plant pathogens, revolutionizing plant disease diagnostics and management. This technology enables the precise detection of a broad range of pathogens, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses, through the generation of unique mass spectral fingerprints. The speed and reliability of MALDI-TOF MS make it a promising alternative to traditional molecular and biochemical methods, which are often time-consuming and Labor intensive. Recent advances in MALDI-TOF MS, including improved sample preparation techniques, enhanced spectral databases, and automation, have further increased its applicability in plant pathology. Integrating MALDI-TOF MS into plant disease management frameworks can significantly improve decision-making processes, allowing for timely interventions and reducing the spread of infectious diseases. This review discusses the emerging trends in MALDI-TOF MS, its advantages over conventional methods, and its potential to transform plant pathogen detection and disease management, ultimately contributing to sustainable agricultural practices. Future directions include expanding spectral libraries, integrating MALDI-TOF MS with other diagnostic tools, and increasing accessibility to this technology in various agricultural settings.

Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) has emerged as a powerful tool in the rapid and accurate identification of plant pathogens, revolutionizing plant disease diagnostics and management. This technology enables the precise detection of a broad range of pathogens, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses, through the generation of unique mass spectral fingerprints. The speed and reliability of MALDI-TOF MS make it a promising alternative to traditional molecular and biochemical methods, which are often time-consuming and Labor intensive. Recent advances in MALDI-TOF MS, including improved sample preparation techniques, enhanced spectral databases, and automation, have further increased its applicability in plant pathology. Integrating MALDI-TOF MS into plant disease management frameworks can significantly improve decision-making processes, allowing for timely interventions and reducing the spread of infectious diseases. This review discusses the emerging trends in MALDI-TOF MS, its advantages over conventional methods, and its potential to transform plant pathogen detection and disease management, ultimately contributing to sustainable agricultural practices. Future directions include expanding spectral libraries, integrating MALDI-TOF MS with other diagnostic tools, and increasing accessibility to this technology in various agricultural settings.

This study explores the antifungal potential of zinc oxide (ZnO) and molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂) nanoparticles (NPs) against Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium graminearum, two major fungal pathogens threatening wheat production and grass pastures. Three sizes of ZnO NPs (30nm, 200nm, and 20μm) and MoS₂ NPs (90nm) were synthesized and characterized using atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy, and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) analyses. Antifungal assays revealed that smaller ZnO NPs (30nm) exhibited superior antifungal activity due to their high surface-to-volume ratio, achieving up to 79% inhibition of F. oxysporum, while MoS₂ NPs effectively inhibited F. graminearum growth by inducing oxidative stress and cellular damage, with a maximum inhibition rate of 83% (p < 0.05). The combination of ZnO and MoS₂ NPs demonstrated synergistic antifungal effects, as confirmed by light microscopy, which showed that ZnO NPs disrupted fungal cell wall integrity while MoS₂ NPs triggered oxidative stress and intracellular vacuolization. Greenhouse trials further validated the effectiveness of MoS₂ NPs in reducing Fusarium head blight (FHB) severity in wheat, underscoring their potential for sustainable wheat protection, with disease severity reduced by up to 35.8%. These findings highlight ZnO and MoS₂ NPs as promising eco-friendly alternatives to conventional fungicides, though further research is needed to optimize field applications, assess environmental impact, and integrate these NPs into comprehensive plant disease management strategies.

Nanomaterials have substantial application in plant disease diagnosis and management. The nanoparticles and nanosensors have wide application in the detection of microbial infections and diagnosis of plant diseases. Enzyme-based biosensors coated with Au, Ag, Cu, or Ti-NPs may greatly enhance the sensitivity of diagnostic probes for plant infection detection. The nanomaterials may be used in plant disease management through two ways, i.e., direct application of the nanoparticles of a suitable antimicrobial chemical or by encapsulating an antimicrobial chemical by a nanomaterial. Direct application of nanoparticles has been found to suppress a number of plant pathogenic fungi and some bacteria. Nanomaterials, nanotubes, and nanocapsules can efficiently carry higher concentration of active ingredients of pesticides, etc. and may also regulate the release of the chemical. We present here a critical review on the use of nanomaterials in plant disease diagnosis and management and have discussed in detail various relevant aspects, including the commercial use of this technology.

Bacterial leaf blight caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) is one of the most devastating diseases, resulting in significant yield losses in rice. The extensive use of chemical antibacterial agents has led to an increase the environmental toxicity. Nanotechnology products are being developed as a promising alternative to control plant disease with low environmental impact. In the present study, we investigated the antibacterial activity of biosynthesized chitosan nanoparticles (CSNPs) and zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs) against rice pathogen Xoo. The formation of CSNPs and ZnONPs in the reaction mixture was confirmed by using UV-vis spectroscopy at 300–550 nm. Moreover, CSNPs and ZnONPs with strong antibacterial activity against Xoo were further characterized by scanning and transmission electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction. Compared with the corresponding chitosan and ZnO alone, CSNPs and ZnONPs showed greater inhibition in the growth of Xoo, which may be mainly attributed to the reduction in biofilm formation and swimming, cell membrane damage, reactive oxygen species production, and apoptosis of bacterial cells. Overall, this study revealed that the two biosynthesized nanoparticles, particularly CSNPs, are a promising alternative to control rice bacterial disease.

The indiscriminate use of chemical fungicides led to pesticide residues in food products, risk of development of new pathotypes and pollution of soil and water ecosystem. This resulted in several ill effects on human beings, flora and fauna. To overcome the ill effects of chemical pesticides, attention had been paid to explore into products of higher plants for developing novel biopesticides in plant disease management. Our ancestors had been using these botanicals for the management of plant diseases, before the era of conventional fungicides. But the popularity of pesticides of plant origin has again been increasing due to its potential fungicidal action against several plant pathogens without any deleterious effect to the crop plants as well as environment. Several plants have been identified for antimicrobial properties which can suppress the growth and multiplication of plant pathogens, reduction in storage decay and spoilage of food products. The potential plant origin pesticides, viz. neem (Azadirachta indica), garlic bulb (Allium sativum), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus), turmeric (Curcuma longa), tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), ginger (Zingiber officinale), etc., have been successfully used for the management of several plant diseases. Moreover, seed treatment + foliar spray of freshly prepared garlic bulb extract has resulted into the reduction of Alternaria blight (35.6 %), white rust (50.4 %), powdery mildew (67.7 %) and Sclerotinia rot (80.3 %) in mustard with 27.3 % increase in yield over untreated control. These pesticides can suitably fit in any integrated pest management framework as well as in organic farming system which is a necessity in the current situation. Keeping in view the ever-increasing demand for safe food, pesticides of plant origin have a pivotal role to play in the management of plant diseases in comparison to the conventional chemical pesticides. These pesticides are not only useful to the developing countries due to their easy availability, being relatively cheap, easy sustenance in any crop protection programme and having direct relevance to the developed countries for healthy and quality produce of foodstuffs.

Plant diseases are major limiting factors in agricultural production. The control of plant diseases using pesticides although quite easy and effective is being objected due to the rising concerns for food safety, environmental quality, and development of pesticide resistance in pathogens, pressing for alternative pest management practises. The plant nutrients may be important factors in changing the levels of disease tolerance or resistance in plants. However, the effect of nutrients on plant diseases and the many factors that influence this response is not properly studied. This chapter summarizes the information related to the effect of nutrients, N, K, P, S, Mn, Mg, B, Zn, Cl, Fe, Cu, and Si, on host resistance and management of plant diseases with particular reference to wheat diseases. In most of the cases of obligate plant pathogens, high N level increases the severity of the infection. In the case of facultative pathogens, higher rates of N application decreases the incidence of diseases. Potash (K) in most cases is helpful in enhancing plant resistance to pathogens. The effect of P in plant resistance to diseases, however, appears to be inconsistent. Among the micronutrients, Mn application is helpful in disease management since it plays an important role in lignin and phenol biosynthesis to limit the spread of pathogens and also in the photosynthesis of plants. Boron reduces the severity of many diseases and plays a role in cell wall structure, plant membranes, and plant metabolism. Chlorine also enhances the resistance level in host plants to diseases. Silicon helps in the control of diseases in rice. Zinc may have negative, positive, or no effect in the management of diseases. The nutrients may have synergetic effect but in some cases may affect the effect of one nutrient in reducing the severity of diseases. The incidence of diseases of wheat like leaf blotch, powdery mildew root rot, tan spots, bunt, take-all, smuts, and stem, leaf, and stripe rusts is decreased by the application of K. Nutrients may, therefore, become an important part of integrated disease management in wheat and other crop plants.

Zinc oxide nanoparticles can be classified as a multipurpose material, along with their distinctive features and applications in optoelectronic devices. This research looks at the morphological, structural, and optical features of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles. The sol-gel procedure has been used to form zinc oxide nanoparticles with zinc nitrate [Zn (NO3)2.4H2O] and sodium hydroxide [NaOH] as precursors. The main objective is to synthesize zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles by using the sol-gel approach because that is easy to implement and offers the capacity to adjust particle size and morphology by systematically monitoring reaction conditions. X-ray diffraction phenomenon, Scanning Electron Microscopy, and Ultraviolet-vis spectroscopy characterization techniques were used to determine the structural, morphological, and optical features of produced zinc oxide nanoparticles. According to the XRD examination, the produced nanoparticles are in a highly crystalline phase nature. The high crystallinity of ZnO is observed in all diffraction peaks, implying that Zinc oxide nanoparticles were synthesized properly using the sol-gel process. The UV-vis spectroscopy produced an absorption spectrum at 370nm due to ZnO nanoparticles. The Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) measurements reveal the surface structure and grains size of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles at a different resolution.

Soilborne pathogenic fungi are the most serious group of plant pathogens which cause huge yield losses to crop plants. Because of the complexity in the soil environment and plant disease development, management of plant diseases caused by soilborne pathogenic fungi appears a great challenge for all times. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria are important soil microbial communities which are for the past few decades successfully used for the promotion of plant growth and management of plant diseases. Though there are many options available for the management of soilborne pathogens such as agronomic practices, chemical control, and varietal resistance, the biological control using either PGPR or their metabolites offers promising prospects. Agrobacterium, Arthrobacter, Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Bacillus, Burkholderia, Caulobacter, Chromobacterium, Erwinia, Flavobacterium, Micrococcus, Pseudomonas, and Serratia are some of rhizobacteria found associated in the rhizosphere of many plants, while bacteria such as Allorhizobium, Azorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, Mesorhizobium, and Rhizobium of the family Rhizobiaceae that are found inside the roots together contribute to the collective group of PGPR. Bacillus and Pseudomonas are the two most extensively characterized PGPR genera for their metabolites against plant pathogenic microorganisms including soilborne pathogenic fungi. The metabolites of PGPR contribute to their antagonistic potential by exerting mechanisms such as antibiosis, competition, and induced systemic resistance. Antibiotic metabolites of PGPR such phenazines, pyrrolnitrin, 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol, pyoluteorin, viscosinamide, tensin, and iturins and volatile metabolites such as hydrogen cyanide and ammonia are having direct antagonistic activity against soilborne pathogenic fungi. Both bioprocess-mediated and genetic engineering-mediated optimization of metabolite production by PGPR have been approached for the production of bioactive metabolites. The metabolites of PGPR could be the potential choice for the effective management of plant diseases caused by soilborne pathogenic fungi because of their advantages such as easy formulation, targeted delivery, and curative effect on plant diseases.

Currently, there is a great interest in nanoparticle-based vaccine delivery. Recent studies suggest that nanoparticles when introduced into the biological milieu are not simply passive carriers but may also contribute immunological activity themselves or of their own accord. For example there is considerable interest in the biomedical applications of one of the physiologically-based inorganic metal oxide nanoparticle, zinc oxide (ZnO). Indeed zinc oxide (ZnO) NP are now recognized as a nanoscale chemotherapeutic or anticancer nanoparticle (ANP) and several recent reports suggest ZnO NP and/or its complexes with drug and RNA induce a potent antitumor response in immuno-competent mouse models. A variety of cell culture studies have shown that ZnO NP can induce cytokines such as IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2, and IL-12 which are known to regulate the tumor microenvironment. Much less work has been done on magnesium oxide (MgO), cobalt oxide (Co3O4), or nickel oxide (NiO); however, despite the fact that these physiologically-based metal oxide NP are reported to functionally load and assemble RNA and protein onto their surface and may thus also be of potential interest as nanovaccine platform. Here we initially compared in vitro immunogenicity of ZnO and Co3O4 NP and their effects on cancer-associated or tolerogenic cytokines. Based on these data we moved ZnO NP forward to testing in the ex vivo splenocyte assay relative to MgO and NiO NP and these data showed significant difference for flow cytometry sorted population for ZnO-NP, relative to NiO and MgO. These data suggesting both molecular and cellular immunogenic activity, a double-stranded anticancer RNA (ACR), polyinosinic:poly cytidylic acid (poly I:C) known to bind ZnO NP; when ZnO-poly I:C was injected into B16F10-BALB/C tumor significantly induced, IL-2 and IL-12 as shown by Cohen’s d test. LL37 is an anticancer peptide (ACP) currently in clinical trials as an intratumoral immuno-therapeutic agent against metastatic melanoma. LL37 is known to bind poly I:C where it is thought to compete for receptor binding on the surface of some immune cells, metastatic melanoma and lung cells. Molecular dynamic simulations revealed association of LL37 onto ZnO NP confirmed by gel shift assay. Thus using the well-characterized model human lung cancer model cell line (BEAS-2B), poly I:C RNA, LL37 peptide, or LL37-poly I:C complexes were loaded onto ZnO NP and delivered to BEAS-2B lung cells, and the effect on the main cancer regulating cytokine, IL-6 determined by ELISA. Surprisingly ZnO-LL37, but not ZnO-poly I:C or the more novel tricomplex (ZnO-LL37-poly I:C) significantly suppressed IL-6 by >98–99%. These data support the further evaluation of physiological metal oxide compositions, so-called physiometacomposite (PMC) materials and their formulation with anticancer peptide (ACP) and/or anticancer RNA (ACR) as a potential new class of immuno-therapeutic against melanoma and potentially lung carcinoma or other cancers.

The growing concern about the health and environmental hazards of chemical pesticides worldwide and burgeoning interest on organic or chemical residue-free food have driven plant protection research towards developing a bio-intensive and ecofriendly strategy of pest management. At this juncture, exploring plant-beneficial microbes including the fungal genus Trichoderma is considered as the most suitable tactic. Trichoderma is known as the most commonly used biocontrol agent, as Trichoderma based biopesticides occupy a significant position in the world biopesticide market. The plant-beneficial properties of Trichoderma have widened its horizon beyond plant disease management, and the genus is explored for biotic and abiotic stress management as well. Trichoderma has shown its potential in plant growth promotion and activating defence mechanism in plants. In the recent decade, the genus has caught researchers’ attention in insect pest management as well as bioremediation of organic and inorganic pollutants. This book chapter summarizes the comprehensive information on research findings on Trichoderma including plant disease and insect pest management, plant growth promotion, Trichoderma-mediated host defence response, role in organic agriculture in NE India and discusses the future line of research works.

Textile materials have been enriched in function at the composite level with continuous developments in the textile industry. Zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles (ZnO‐NPs) are strongly influenced by ultraviolet (UV) filter, antifungal, high catalysis, and semiconductor/piezoelectric coupling characteristics. Therefore, the antibacterial property and UV resistance of ZnO‐NP materials are zcomprehensively analysed to provide a basis for applying ZnO‐NP in the textile industry. In addition, the textile preparation and application of ZnO‐NP in piezoelectric power generation is discussed. Based on relevant documents for ZnO‐textile industry applications, scanning electron microscopy analysis, biological activity analysis, and UV transmittance analysis of textiles containing composite materials prove that textiles based on ZnO‐based composite materials (ZnO‐NP materials) have antibacterial properties and UV resistance. The antibacterial property and UV resistance of ZnO‐NP materials are analysed comprehensively to provide a basis for applying ZnO‐NP in the textile industry. After the photocatalytic reaction, its practical application as slurry type suspensions is limited because of the difficulty of separating the catalyst particles. In terms of its piezoelectric power generation characteristics, intensity of current voltage analysis and X‐ray diffraction analysis reveal that textiles based on ZnO‐NP materials have obvious semiconductor characteristic and obvious current enhancement signals locally, indicating that the textiles can achieve better piezoelectric properties.