China's Public Health Policies in Response to COVID-19: From an "Authoritarian" Perspective.

With the continuous development of economic globalization, human society has increasingly become an organic whole, and the relationship between the two has become closer. Therefore, the public health crisis has become a global crisis event endangering the international community. It is the bounden duty of all countries in the world to calmly respond to the public health crisis. The COVID-19 provides a valuable window of opportunity to examine the governance system and governance capabilities of China's public health crisis. This major infectious disease has brought great challenges to China. Due to certain deviations in public health crisis management, a series of crises in the field of public health has been exposed to the epidemic prevention work. If we can proceed from China's national conditions, establish efficient monitoring and early warning system, continuously strengthen the emergency management guarantee system and social mobilization mechanism, incorporate public health security into the national security strategy, establish a scientific concept of public health governance, and promote the legalization of public health crisis management, the process of building a grassroots public health crisis governance pattern can turn the crisis into a major opportunity to improve China's public health crisis governance capabilities.

This paper was based on the achievements of China's public health service system in recent decades, and analyzed its current deficiencies, and further proposed how to develop China's public health service system during the “14th Five-Year Plan” period and how to improve governance measures, which was to arouse more attention and discussion, and to promote the sustainable development of China's public health services.

Two U.S. specialists (on the governance and foreign policy aspects of China's public health issues as well as its human and medical geography) examine how two different sets of policies implemented by the government of China have affected both the geography and political ecology of pandemic disease outbreaks (HIV/AIDS, SARS, and H1N1) over the past two decades. More specifically, they argue that: (1) broad development and reform policies largely responsible for China's rapid modernization/urbanization and increasingly successful perfomance in the global economic arena have generated unexpected side-effects in terms of the location, incidence, and spread of pandemics as well as the state's capacity to mount an adequate health care response; and (2) politically motivated public health policies implemented in response to the spread of specific pandemics in China have had unanticipated impacts on the progression of disease outbreaks and their outcomes. Journal of Economic Literature, Classification Numbers: H510, H750, I180. 3 figures, 2 tables, 76 references.

In 2003, atypical infectious virus pneumonia broke out in many provinces in China. Many provinces and cities were deeply affected, including Hong Kong, Taiwan, and nearly 37 countries and regions in the world. The government and even local governments at all levels across the country are facing severe tests of their ability to manage sudden and major public crises. At the beginning of 2020, the sudden emergence of new crown pneumonia put Wuhan, the place where the epidemic first broke out, the Hubei provincial government and local governments at all levels across the country once again subjected to severe tests. This sudden epidemic also brought us profound lessons and reflections. Nowadays, the form of crisis is no longer just a simple accident. This may become a normal state in our lives. Therefore, attaching importance to the management of public crises can be understood as normalized management faced by local governments in sustainable development. Although with the joint efforts of the people across the country, great progress has been made in the prevention and control of the epidemic, the spread of the epidemic across the country this time has exposed many problems in the public crisis management of local governments: imperfect legal systems, and a series of problems such as lack of awareness and imperfect early warning mechanism. Therefore, corresponding measures should be taken in time to improve the ability of local governments to respond to crises.

China's development model is undergoing dramatic change. No longer relying solely on cheap labor to manufacture exports, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) is updating its approach in three distinct...

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has brought enormous challenges for public health crisis management in China. Crisis responses vary greatly among provinces. Many studies focus on the role of the central government in crisis management. However, how regional governments respond to such pandemic crises is underexplored. The existing literature lacks extensive comparative studies explaining why different regions respond differently to the crisis and how different regional institutional environments affect crisis management. By proposing an analytical framework based on governance capacity and legitimacy theory, this article seeks to address these questions. This study mainly focuses on provincial governments because they play a crucial role in coordinating various organizations and different levels of government in response to the crisis. By comparing the different COVID-19 responses of Hubei and Zhejiang provinces, this study finds that different regional institutional environments based on the triangular linkage of government, business and society influence regional crisis management by shaping different governance capacities (coordination, analytical, regulation and delivery capacity) and legitimacy (input, throughput and output legitimacy). Regional governments with strong governance capacity can promote crisis management through cross-organizational collaboration, scientific analysis and timely decision-making and effective policy implementation. Promoting citizen participation and information disclosure in the policy process and enhancing citizens' support can improve governance legitimacy, thereby facilitating crisis management. Governance capacity and legitimacy also affect each other. These findings contribute to the literature on public health crisis management. They also shed light on how regional governments in China and other countries with regional variation can effectively tackle public health crises under different institutional environments.

PurposeThe socialist political economy with Chinese characteristics is the scientific fruit of Xi Jinping thought on socialist economy with Chinese characteristics for a new era. People-centred philosophy is the core values of the Communist Party of China (CPC) Central Committee's governance of China with Xi Jinping as the core and has become the core values of the socialist political economy with Chinese characteristics. According to Xi Jinping thought on socialist economy with Chinese characteristics, it represents the interests of all people and determines the disciplinary attribute of the socialist political economy with Chinese characteristics, that is, people-centred economics. Xi Jinping has defined the essence of the socialism as eliminating poverty, improving people's livelihood and gradually realising common prosperity. That determines the main line of socialist political economy with Chinese characteristics is to liberate, develop and protect the productive forces and achieve common prosperity. This study aims to discuss the aforementioned statements.Design/methodology/approachXi Jinping's scientific judgement on the new stage of development and the principal contradiction facing Chinese society has put forward the requirement of problem orientation for the study of socialist political economy with Chinese characteristics, involving the main contradiction facing Chinese society, high-quality development and modernisation. China's socialist basic economic system consists of a socialist market economy in which public ownership plays the leading role alongside other forms of ownership and distribution according to work is the mainstay, while other forms of distribution coexist alongside it. And this socialist basic economic system, marked out from three dimensions—production, distribution and exchange analysis, is the key of analysis of systems in the socialist political economy with Chinese characteristics. The economic operation analysis in political economy mainly involves resource allocation and the government's macroeconomic regulation and control.FindingsThe new thought and new practices about the role of the market and the government in the new era have opened up a new realm for the economic operation analysis in the socialist political economy with Chinese characteristics. The new development philosophy and new development paradigm define the content of the economic development theory in the socialist political economy with Chinese characteristics. The new development paradigm reflects the dual circulation theory of social reproduction.Originality/valueThe socialist political economy with Chinese characteristics is to study laws of economics in various aspects from economic system, economic operation, economic development to foreign economy and provide the basic principles of socialist political economy with Chinese characteristics. Its mainstream economic position will be consolidated continuously.

Promoting the Communist Party of China’s leadership into the law is an inevitable requirement for the CPC’s comprehensive leadership in governing the country according to law in the new era, and it is also a legislative action to implement the CPC’s Leadership clause of the Constitution. On the issue of the standard of «the party’s leadership into the law», the academic circles have successively put forward two representative viewpoints: «theory in the field of public law» and «theory of political standard». But both are too formal to be applied in practice. For example, although the political judgment standard theory initially involves the substantive content level, the actual understanding and application still seem relatively broad, and there is no substantive content to grasp.In 2018, the amendments to China’s constitution added a clause that «the leadership of the Communist Party of China is the most essential feature of socialism with Chinese characteristics», which fundamentally established the criterion of «socialist attributes»: a substantive criterion of «promoting CPC’s leadership into the law». According to this provision, if the law needs to confirm the leadership of the Communist Party of China , it means the law should highlight its socialist nature. The question of which national legislation needs to specify the «leadership of the Party» is essentially the issue of which national legislation needs to highlight the socialist nature in the substance and must ensure its socialist attribute.Therefore, to judge whether a national legislation should state «the leadership of the Communist Party of China», the substantive content should be based on whether the country’s legislation has outstanding socialist attributes and should absolutely guarantee and give special prominence to its socialist values. In this constitutional sense, state legislation stipulating «the leadership of the Communist Party of China» is to highlight its «socialist» attributes; In order to manifest and guarantee its socialist character, state legislation must clearly stipulate the principle of «Adhere to the leadership of the CPC». The Constitution is the fundamental law and supreme law of the country, and the highest standard and basis for national legislation. Therefore, national legislation should also be based on the Constitution when stipulating the «leadership of the Communist Party of China» clause. That is, national legislation with prominent socialist attributes should comprehensively stipulate «upholding the leadership of the Communist Party of China». The basic scope of these legislation involves the fields of basic system of state and government, national defense and military, national security, cadre personnel, education, ideological security, governing the country according to law, anti-monopoly, etc., and mainly belongs to public law. The legislative field with socialist attributes is a practical and opening field. With the in-depth development of socialist practice, when the socialist nature in some fields is gradually highlighted and clearly recognized by legislators, its corresponding legislation will clearly stipulate the principle of «upholding the leadership of the Communist Party of China», which further confirm and guarantee its «socialist attribute» at the national legislative level. Therefore, the issue of the field and scope of «the Party’s leadership into the law» is fundamentally a dynamic issue, a dynamic field that has always been constantly evolving in the face of the development of socialist practice.To promote the Party’s leadership into the law, the fundamental purpose should be conducive to strengthening the leadership of the Communist Party of China, and comprehensively consider the coordination and convergence between the national laws and the Communist Party of China’s regulations under the socialist rule of law system. The newly revised National Constitution in 2018 has established a legislative expression model that confirmed the leadership of the Communist Party of China in principle and abstractly. The normative content of how the Chinese Communist Party exercises its leadership is specified in detail by the Communist Party of China Constitution. The Communist Party regulations are the main basis rules for the party to manage the party and govern the party, and have outstanding functions of governing the party and controlling power. They are most suitable for comprehensively standardizing and directly stipulating the specific content and procedures of the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party over the country. In this way, the national laws and the Communist Party of China regulations can be harmony and unified in the socialist system of rule of law as a whole. Accordingly, when relevant national legislation stipulates «the CPC’s leadership», it should also mainly implement the model established by the National Constitution and the Communist Party of China Constitution, which confirm the leadership of the Communist Party of China in principle and abstractly. So, there will leave the legislative blanks for the Communist Party of China regulations to stipulate the normative content such as its specific scope, matters, methods, procedures, responsibilities, and so on. This legislative white space is intentional from an overall perspective of the socialist rule of law system, and is a «rule of law interface» that must be reserved for the integration of the Communist Party of China regulations with national laws to further specific provisions on the actual content of «the CPC’s leadership».As a result, the national legislation focuses on «abstract confirmation of the party’s leadership status», while the Communist Party of China regulations focus on directly regulating and restraining the party’s leadership activities in a comprehensive and concrete way. The national laws and the Communist Party of China regulations are closely coordinated and connected on the issue of promoting the CPC’s leadership into the law. At that time, there is a differentiated division of labor and dislocation and complementary relationship between the national laws and the Communist Party of China regulations. That will not only highlight the unity and scientific nature of the socialist rule of law system with Chinese characteristics but also conducive to accelerating the formation of a rule of law pattern in which national laws and the Communist Party of China regulations complement each other, promote each other, and guarantee each other. The leadership of the Chinese Communist Party over the country will be confirmed and guaranteed by party rules and state law, and will be more stable in the socialist rule of law system.

Since the 18th CPC National Congress, the CPC Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping as the core has put forward new thoughts, new ideas and new measures to guide the Party’s international work. The Communist Party of China (CPC) takes the construction of the Belt and Road Initiative (“一带一路”倡议) as the starting point and the construction of ‘Community with Shared Future for Mankind’ (“人类命运共同体”) as the strategic goal to carry out the party’s diplomacy. At the same time, the proposal for a ‘China-Africa Community with a Shared Future’ (“中非命运共同体”) also puts forward new requirements for Sino-African political party exchanges. As a political party with the longest ruling time in Africa, Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) has a long history of friendly exchanges with the CPC. The long-standing inter-party relations between CPC and CCM is the political guarantee of Sino-Tanzanian friendship as well as an important part of Sino-Africa political party cooperation. Even before the CCM was founded, the CPC has started exchanges with TANU, CCM’s predecessor, after that, relations between CCM and CPC have gone through different stages, with some new contents and features appearing in each stage. From Mao Zedong’s Three Worlds Theory to Deng Xiaoping’s judgment on the theme of ‘Peace and Development’ and then to Xi Jinping’s ‘Community with Shared Future for Mankind’. In 2017, with Xi Jinping’s announcement at the 19th National Congress of the CPC that Socialism with Chinese Characteristics has entered a new era, the CPC’s foreign exchanges has also entered a new era, so has the inter-party exchanges between the CPC and CCM. In view of the fact that the initiator and advocate of world party diplomacy is the CPC, this article will take the perspective of the CPC and the Chinese official narrative to analyze the new tasks and opportunities facing the cooperation between CPC and CCM in the new era, especially in the complicated international context of a world undergoing changes unseen in a century.

This paper is part of a research study that is intended to identify pharmaceutical quality risks induced by the ongoing transformation in the industry. This study establishes the current regulatory context by characterizing the development of the pharmaceutical regulatory environment. The regulatory environment is one of the most important external factors that affects a company's organization, processes, and technological strategy. This is especially the case with the pharmaceutical industry, where its products affect the quality of life of the consumers. The quantitative analysis of regulatory events since 1813 and review of the associated literature resulted in identification of six factors influencing the regulatory environment, namely public health protection, public health promotion, crisis management, harmonization, innovation, and modernization. From 1813 to the 1970s the focus of regulators was centered on crisis management and public health protection-a basic mission that has remained consistent over the years. Since the 1980s a gradual move in the regulatory environment towards a greater focus on public health promotion, international harmonization, innovation, and agency modernization may be seen. The pharmaceutical industry is currently going through changes that affect the way it performs its research, manufacturing, and regulatory activities. The impact of these changes on the approaches to quality risk management requires more understanding. The authors are engaged in research to identify elements of the changes that influence pharmaceutical quality. As quality requirements are an integral part of the pharmaceutical regulations, a comprehensive understanding of these regulations is seen as the first step. The results of this study show that (i) public health protection, public health promotion, crisis management, harmonization, innovation, and modernization are factors that affect regulations in the pharmaceutical industry; (ii) the regulators' main mission of public health protection has remained a constant feature over the years; and (iii) since the 1970s other factors such as public health promotion, international harmonization, innovation, and agency modernization are playing more important role in regulatory agency thinking and actions.

The western China, especially near the Wenchuan region witnessed a terrible earthquake in the year 2008, which led to some severe damage in the country. Several interviews and studies are conducted to explain the impact of this Sichuan earthquake on the development of the various grass-root associations present in the country.

Regarding the strategy of cross-Strait relations, both Taiwan and Mainland China have made some changes but also kept some consistent positions since China was separated into two governments in 1949. The Taiwan government removed the martial law and allowed Taiwanese to visit their relatives living in China in 1987. From then on, both sides started to exchange information and ideas in many aspects with each other. Also the cross-Strait relations ushered in a new era. However, after the Taiwan Strait crisis broke out in 1996, the cross-Strait relations cooled down. The intention of the unification of China was called into question by both sides. After Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) which insisted on Taiwan Independence took power in the central government in 2000, the Communist Party of China (CPC) was forced to unavoidably face the new lead team in Taiwan. The DPP government constantly utilized the tense cross-Strait relations as a strategy to triumph in the various elections and unceasingly provoked CPC to make them lose the initiative in the cross-Strait issues. Hu Jintao became the successor of President of China and formally led the China government in 2003. Facing the DDP’s victory in the 2004 presidential election, CPC started thinking about how to avoid passively responding to the provocation of Taiwan Independence from the Taiwan authorities. Accordingly, CPC passed the Anti-Secession Law in 2005 as the bottom line of dealing with the Taiwan Independence issue. Although the approval of Anti-Secession Law made Taiwanese people feel a strong antipathy towards it, the international community didn’t make many statements publicly to support Taiwan.. However, the Taiwan government raised “Abolition of Unification” and “Referendum for Entering United Nations Bundled into Elections” respectively during 2005 and 2008, as a strategy of promoting the situation of election. But CPC used these two events to test the real effects of Anti-Secession Law. This thesis is focused on a series of events and their processes to analyze the strategic value of CPC’s Anti-Secession Law and evaluate the real effects that CPC obtained by using this law.

Communist Party of China(CPC) was built in 1921, the military organized in 1927 and Chinese government constructed in 1949, that's to say that CPC is the most important than military which is superior to government. Although CPC boosted the economy by choosing the right-side policy for the past 30 years, the left-side policy on politics being started the term of Mao never had been changed, such as CPC leading military and government, one party dictatorship of CPC as well as CPC's military.A half of members of Central Military Commission (CMC) will be reorganized in the autumn of 2012 by 18th Communist Party of China national congress so new members of CMC must have the right position at CPC; after being reorganized CMC and who is the next leader, it will be affecting the relationships between Taiwan and China in 5-10 years.The research of this thesis will benefit the army of ROC since knowing the enemy which is the right way to defeat it.

2014 is marked as Year One of the Comprehensively Deepening Reforms era, according to a decision of the Communist Party of China (CPC), in which the CPC vows to accelerate the establishment of government administration in accordance with the law. 1 As an important function and power and a major task of the National People’s Congress (NPC) and its Standing Committee, legislation is playing an increasingly guiding and motivating role. Improving the quality of legislation is also regarded by the Standing Committee of the CPC as a key task. 2 More importantly, the rule of law was for the first time made the theme of the fourth plenary session of the eighteenth Central Committee of the CPC. The resolution of the CPC Central Committee on Certain Major Issues Concerning Comprehensively Advancing the Law-Based Governance of China adopted by the plenary session highlighted the general target of China to form a system that serves the socialist rule of law with Chinese characteristics and to build a country under the socialist rule of law. 3 This resolution was believed to be a milestone of epoch-making significance in the CPC’s history. 4 The resolution also pointed out that: the major tasks are to improve a social system of laws with Chinese characteristics, in which the Constitution is taken as the core, to strengthen the implementation of the Constitution, to prompt the administration of law, to speed up the building of a law-abiding government, to safeguard judicial justice, to improve judicial credibility, to prompt the public awareness of rule of law, to enhance the building of a law-based society, to improve team building and to sharpen the CPC’s leadership in pushing forward rule of law. 5

The involvement of the Communist Party of China (CPC) in corporate decision-making has formed a governance model with ‘Chinese characteristics’ that diverges from commonly studied governance models. This paper provides direct insight into China’s political governance model by examining how the Party organization influences the investment efficiency of private firms. We find that increasing the proportion of Party directors (i.e. stronger political governance) improves the investment efficiency of private firms. This finding survives various robustness checks. The mediation analysis suggests that Party organizations promote corporate investment efficiency by playing advisory and supervisory roles in corporate governance. One policy implication is that, from the perspective of improving investment efficiency, the CPC should encourage private firms to invite more Party organization members to the board of directors, supervisory board, or management.