Chapter Thirteen. The Era of Border Security Immigration after 9/11

In the aftermath of 9/11, concerns surrounding global security have elevated to unprecedented levels. As a result, most Western democracies have taken significant steps to heighten border and national security. Moreover, most of these nations have commissioned public relations campaigns to highlight their post-9/11 security efforts. Australia and Canada were selected for comparison because of their many social, political, legal, and economic similarities, yet also because they take distinctly different approaches to border security. This paper outlines each country's position on the enforcement spectrum for border security, contrasts their approaches to border security, compares public confidence in border security for each nation, and discusses the border security implications for each.

Any account of European security that ignores border security is incomplete, and any account of border security that disregards functional issues is unfinished. Border security is an empirical manifestation of a state's adaptation to its political environment, so a comprehensive analysis of European security requires that both the empirical and conceptual parameters of border management should be identified. However, this is problematic. Not only is functional security benignly neglected by the academy, but also border management is based on competing political imperatives, operational necessities, and social realities, rather than a coherent theoretical framework. Although the rationalities of European border security have yet to be systematically analysed, the Schengen accord is unlikely to provide the foundations needed for a comprehensive paradigm of European (border) security. This article focuses on the empirical and practical—rather than theoretical—dimensions of border security in order to rebalance the debate.

As means of communication and transportation have improved, boundaries have been progressively dismantled. Large audiences are feeling the effects of events that are happening in various nations. Complex security issues have arisen in recent years as a result of responses to an upsurge in attacks and domestic unrest. A lot of nations are having a hard time keeping their borders secure and figuring out how to stop people from crossing illegally. It is reasonable to look at data that comes in at various times from various directions and kinds in real time while thinking about the breadth of border security. Furthermore, a logical approach to developing a pipeline employing Big Data technology would be to include large-scale unstructured analysis of data into the overall solution. The goal of this research is to develop a system that can address border security issues while being affordable, reliable, scalable, and adaptable. Applications related to border security were studied in relation to the usage of Lambda Architecture, which offers batch processing capabilities and real-time data processing. We covered the fundamentals of system development and gave the rundown on how it works.

: The 2002 National Homeland Security Strategy cited border and transportation security as one of the six critical mission areas for securing America from terrorist attacks. The Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) was abolished in March 2003, and all its immigration-related functions were transferred into the Bureau of Customs and Border Protection (CBP) under the newly created Department of Homeland Security (DHS). This Strategic Research Project examines the history of border security, strategic implications of the new mission, practices, and policies of the CBP. Further, it analyzes the international border security agreements between Canada, Mexico, and the United States, and reviews the use of Reserve Components in Joint Task Force North and Operation Jumpstart. Finally, it discusses the volunteer Minuteman Civil Defense Corps and concludes with recommendations for improving border security.

Counterintelligence and border security are two cornerstones of national security protection processes. They utilise intelligence sources and procedures extensively to assist in decision-making regarding countermeasures against high-degree threats and risks. Both employ intelligence cycle activities and risk analysis models to combine information coming from the operational environment. At the same time, travel intelligence (TRAVINT) consists of the intelligence product arising from the collection and analysis of a wide range of travel companies and data and information from governments. In the modern and increasingly globalised security environment, TRAVINT products constitute growing trend for protecting state border, intelligence, and internal security. The paper aims to explore the potential of leveraging TRAVINT for enhancing counterintelligence efforts and bolstering border security measures. The research methodology combines empirical analysis with a comprehensive review of the US and EU public documents and academic papers. This study is necessary, as it is essential to examine the worthiness of TRAVINT as an emerging intelligence sector. TRAVINT appears to be an extremely important data, information, and intelligence source offering the required material input to law, security, and intelligence enforcement agencies for analysis. TRAVINT and its parts, such as passenger name records (PNR) data, are used in compliance with state legislation in respect of human rights and in accordance with the needs of Intelligence networks, where excessive threats to internal and border security are implied.

This paper examines the border security situation along the Ghana-Burkina Faso border in the Upper East Region of Ghana within the context of the Sahelian crisis. Employing a qualitative approach, the study gathers data through interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs). Drawing from the Regional Security Complex theory, this study argues that the security of the Upper East Region of Ghana should be assessed within the broader regional security dynamics, which include terrorism in the Sahel, arms trafficking, human smuggling, and other security challenges. The findings reveal that, while the security situation along the border remains relatively stable, several critical issues impede effective border governance and security. These challenges include inadequate resources, limited technological capabilities, corruption, and a lack of inter-agency collaboration among border agencies, as well as insufficient engagement with local border communities. To enhance border security, the Government of Ghana must prioritise improved coordination among various agencies, foster greater community involvement, and install modern surveillance technological devices, such as drones, to assist personnel in monitoring movements along the border. Greater cooperation with the Government of Burkina Faso and other stakeholders in the border space should be prioritised through an emphasis on an integrated border management approach.

In Singapore, officers of the border security agency are required to maintain 24 h, 7 days a week operation across various immigration checkpoints. As the day-to-day workload of a Singapore border security officer is physically demanding and operationally challenging, ensuring the highest level of operational vigilance is vital to operation success in border security operations. In this paper, ‘operational vigilance’ is defined as exercising cognitive agility and sustained attention for the duration of a work shift in a border security operational setting. To enhance and maintain operations in border security checkpoints, this paper explores the drivers of operational vigilance in border security from the Singapore experience. Twelve veteran border security officers participated in this study as subject matter experts from which a thematic analysis was used to extract insightful themes central to operational vigilance in a border security context. Findings from this study are used to provide a deeper understanding of drivers that affect operational vigilance in border security in the Singapore context and used as reference for enhancement of border security operations. Limitations and future directions were discussed.

What ‘border security’ or ‘secure borders’ denote in the EU is not defined. The article explores the concept of border security and how the concept of border security found its way into the supranational EU legislation on border control. The core of the concept of border security can be seen as consisting of ‘border control’, referring to the maintaining of controls of individuals crossing the EU external borders. The developments towards the use of the term border security seemingly encompass, at least, the evolution of the EU internal security domain, a qualitative change in the nature of a number of border control related measures, the perception of insecurities related to the 2004 EU enlargement and the 11 September 2001 attacks. At least at the time when Frontex became operational in 2004, a border security rhetoric began to be used in the EU. Today, the term border security is well established in EU actors’ rhetoric. The supranational EU rules containing the term border security are fundamental elements of the EU border policies and play a crucial role in contributing to the EU discourse on border issues.

This paper uses data collected for an MA Thesis on the effectiveness of Border Security Governance in Preventing Crimes in Nimule Border Post South Sudan. The study assessed the nature of existing border security models at Nimule Border Post –South Sudan; to assessed the influence of administrative structures on border security at Nimule Border Post –South Sudan, established the effect of resource allocation on the quality of border security at Nimule Border Post –South Sudan, and finally determined law enforcement officers perceptions on best practices for border security governance at Nimule Border Post –South Sudan. This study was guided by two theories; The Contingency Theory and The Governance Theory. The study use a Descriptive Research Survey Design to investigate the problem under the study. Questionnaires were used to collect data from 75 senior members of the police and 10 Key Informants. Key informants guide was used to collect qualitative data from the Key Informants. Data was analysed with the aid of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and the results presented using tables, bar graphs and pie charts. According to this study the existing border security model is only composed of the local police. This is inconsistent with the new international security model that require a coordinated multipronged approach by other public agencies. This explains the runaway insecurity prevalent in south Sudan and worse in areas around Nimule border itself. This administrative structure is organized in para- military style that limit and affect decision making of street officers at the Nimule border and characteristically discouraged free hand in operational contexts thus stifled security operations at the Nimule border. The study also established allocation of very scanty resources that did not support adoption of modern state of the arts border security technology at the Nimule border. According to this study law enforcement perceptions sought for the establishment of; joint border crossing points, international cooperation, border community policing programs, establishment of border communities in border security management and coordinated cross-border patrols and multiagency operations. As a policy matter, the government should bench mark with developed countries of best border security model which requires a coordinated multipronged approach by other public agencies and conform to it if she is to cut the problem of border insecurity to the nib. Further, decentralize and demilitarize the administrative structure which are a characteristic of hierarchical leadership structures and strict command and give officers on the street a free hand in decision making at the Nimule Border.

The failure of the South African border security authorities to provide effective border security continues to be a national security concern. The inability to provide effective border security is due to factors such as ineffective methods of controlling and monitoring the borders. The aim of this study was to examine the practicability of employing space technology to address identified border security constraints. The study focused on border security authorities and the space technology sector in South Africa. To achieve this objective, a qualitative research methodology was used to ascertain the issues and constraints of border security in South Africa as well as the possibilities of utilising space technology to address border security constraints in South Africa. Findings indicate that there is a need to utilise space technology in South Africa to enhance the level of border security.

Migration governance and border security are critical aspects of national security. Migration is a dynamic feature of population distribution and has the potential to jeopardize national security if not well-managed. Nigeria's security is threatened by transnational organized crimes, including irregular migration and the proliferation of Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) due to the nature of the country's boundary contingency. There is a dearth of a multi-layered approach that includes surveillance technology, personnel, and infrastructure to handle border security challenges in Nigeria. This study analyzes the relationship between migration governance and border security in Nigeria. The study adopted Everett Lee’s theory of migration, while relying on documentary method for data collection and were analysed qualitatively. The study argued that irregular migration sustained by an expansive border, a lack of manpower, and corruption undermined border security in Northeast Nigeria. Weak enforcement of trans-border agreements, limited cooperation between Nigerian security forces and law enforcement officers in neighboring states, and poor border security funding accounted for the rise in the proliferation of SALW in Northeast Nigeria. To regulate irregular migration into the Northeast, Nigerian government should provide adequate manpower, training, incentives, and equipment for the grooming of efficient and uncompromising border security agencies.

Demographic changes in Nepal have significant implications for national security, particularly border security. The shifting populations, internal migration from rural to urban areas, and cross-border movements have given rise to various challenges like illegal border crossings, human trafficking, smuggling, and other activities that jeopardize security and stability. Despite several efforts, border security continues to be a pressing issue, and there is a lack of understanding of how locallevel elected representatives perceive the implications of demographic change on border security. This research primarily aims to analyze the perception of threat among locally elected representatives concerning the root causes of demographic change at their respective local levels. It also seeks to examine their perception of how demographic change affects border security governance and identify the security threats perceived due to such changes. Moreover, the study aims to determine the perceived role of responsible authorities or agencies in mitigating the security risks associated with demographic change. To achieve these objectives, the research follows an analytical approach, gathering perceptions from elected representatives of various local governments. It uses a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods to analyze their views on border security issues arising from changing demographics in Nepal. The focus areas are the Nepalese territories connected to neighboring countries China and India. The primary data source for the research is local-level government representatives, and the analysis involves thematic exploration of qualitative interviews and quantitative examination of population trends. However, it's important to note that the findings may have limited generalizability, as they are based solely on the perceptions of elected representatives. The study does not include perspectives from security forces or other agencies. The selected areas for the study include regions in Nepal experiencing frequent population decrease, such as Bhotekoshi rural municipality and Jugal rural municipality of Sindhupalchowk district, as well as areas with frequent population increase, including Rajdevi Municipality and Gaur Municipality of Rautahat, Nepalgunj Sub-Metropolitan City of Banke, and Bhajani Municipality and Dhangadhi Sub-Metropolitan City of Kailali District. The study sheds light on the main drivers of demographic change, such as the pursuit of better health, education, employment, and quality of life, and their long-term impact on national and border security. By engaging local-level elected representatives and employing an analytical approach, this research aims to fill the existing research gap and provide valuable information to policymakers for effectively addressing border security challenges arising from demographic change in Nepal.

How and with what effects have three South-East European countries (Greece, Slovenia and Croatia) responded to the EU’s migration and border security acquis?The paper shows that European integration can strengthen central state actors, but can also change the constellation of actors and resources in trans-boundary policy sectors such as international migration and border security. To demonstrate these effects the paper specifies functional, political and administrative dimensions of the EU’s migration and border security ‘capacity bargain’. It also specifies the limits of an EU approach to migration and border security – and associated capacity-building – that has a strong regulatory focus on the EU’s external frontier swith less attention paid to more complex regulatory and distributive dynamics that arise once migrants are ‘in’.

This chapter examines immigration and border security. It begins with a historical overview of immigration trends. The chapter then highlights some of the recent tendencies and policies in immigration and border security. The work highlights deportation policies, particularly during the Bush and Obama administrations. The chapter also examines politicians’ opinions about immigration and border security, focusing on the key statements made by leading politicians from both political parties. The last section concludes with American public opinion about border security and immigration.

Purpose: Para-diplomacy empowers subnational governments to engage directly in international relations, including security policy-making. It operates outside traditional diplomatic channels, bridging gaps between subnational and national governments, and allowing for more nuanced and context-specific approaches to security policy-making. For subnational governments to actively participate in addressing security concerns and shaping security policies, the potential and efficacy of para-diplomacy should be carefully understood and therefore managed. This research explores para-diplomacy and its potential impact on border security in Kenya, particularly the role of border counties. Methodology: Using mixed research methods, the study examines the mechanisms of border management and the important, yet undefined role of border counties. By applying purposive sampling technique, the research selected a sample of 76 individuals from 23 border counties and 6 national government departments all of which are part of Kenya’s governance structure. Questionnaires and interview guides were adopted to gather primary data and both qualitative and quantitative methods of analysis were employed. Findings: It uncovers an institutional gap that fails to clearly define or utilize the potential of these counties in boosting border security. The study also delves into track one diplomacy, delineating its significance in maintaining border stability. It found out that diplomacy appears to produce positive results by transforming conflicts into opportunities for integration through peace building, and conflict management. Additionally, the study investigates the transformative power of neofunctionalism theory, demonstrating how diplomacy can be used to resolve conflicts and foster regional integration. The research suggests that para-diplomacy, the involvement of subnational regions in international affairs, could enhance border security by leveraging the contribution of border counties towards regional integration. Recommendations: In conclusion, the study recommends frameworks promoting collaboration between the central government and border counties to improve border management mechanisms and strengthen Kenya's border security. The research highlights the need for a paradigm shift in understanding and utilizing para-diplomacy in border security management.