Chapter Eight The Report of China’s Private Education Policy Development

Since private education was put forward and implemented, it has been recognized as a successful attempt and practice in the history of education, because of its wonderful complement to public education. China is a country with a large population. The results of the seventh census announcement (No. 2) of the National Bureau of Statistics of the People’s Republic of China show that by 2021, the total population of China has reached 1443497378. The demand for education among residents is increasing day by day, and the limited public education resources cannot cover all learning groups. The role of private education is becoming more and more important. The State encourages the establishment of private schools in accordance with the law by means of donation and foundation, and has formulated a series of guidelines and policies to protect the legitimate rights and interests of teaching staff and students at primary school. Chapter IV of the Regulations for the Implementation of the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Promotion of Civilian-run Education (2021) clarifies the teaching qualifications, legal rights and interests, and guaranteed the salary treatment of teachers in private schools. According to the statistical bulletin of the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China on the Development of National Education in 2021, there are currently 185700 private schools of all levels and types in China. The proportion of private primary schools is increasing year by year, and the number of teachers working in private primary schools is also increasing. The continuous development of private primary schools has also brought new educational management problems, among which the incentive of teachers has aroused strong concern of the society. The development and expansion of private education cannot be separated from a stable and high-quality teacher team. Whether to have an excellent teacher team becomes the basis and key for the competitive development of private schools. The teachers of private primary schools are different from those of public primary schools. The teachers of private primary schools mainly come from teachers recruited from the society, and a small part from retired teachers of public primary schools. The composition of personnel is complex. At the same time, managers should see that incentives are multifaceted, including economic and non-economic factors. Only by clearly grasping the needs of teachers, can school administrators fully mobilize teachers’ enthusiasm, optimize the existing incentive measures for teachers, ultimately improve teachers’ work efficiency and ensure the ultimate realization of educational objectives.

Many Chinese students pursue advanced studies overseas through private international schools, which are distinguished from public schools by high fees. In the Chinese context, parents prioritize education spending to enhance their children's competitiveness and chances in a challenging educational environment. Most research on China's private education system focuses on the macro level to investigate educational inequality by comparing private schools with public schools in terms of teachers' welfare security, students' recruitment, and establishing key public schools. Relatively little research has been conducted on educational inequality brought about by the emergence of private international schools from individual perspectives, and a limited amount of research has explored institutionalised capital from students' perspectives in China. This study aims to investigate how the development of private international schools provides better higher education opportunities for students from middle-income household family backgrounds. Two case schools were selected in economically developed cities in different provinces. Guided by Bourdieu's cultural reproduction theory and Weber's social stratification theory, this research explores how the national and local policies impact the development of private education, and to what extent these different stakeholders in the two selected private schools believe that educational inequality is reproduced in the development of private international schools. In order to undertake a thorough review, different types of data sources were utilised, including desk-based research, quantitative surveys, and qualitative interviews. Empirically, the research provides a systematic review of current Chinese policies and regulations that influence the development of private education in China. It contributes to knowledge concerning private education in China through the identification of different geographical locations, different routes of sending students abroad, schools' training, parents' expectations of private schools, and students' experiences in school, which reflects on how private international schools generate educational inequality. Methodologically, this research is a multiple-case study approach using mixed methods to collect qualitative and quantitative data in private international schools with principals, teachers, parents, and students in different regions of China. This participatory approach, using case studies, allows for an insider perspective to help build rapport with potential participants, the collection of authentic and in-depth data, and positioning of the researcher to be able to reflect and avoid being methodologically subjective. Theoretically, the empirical evidence challenges the concept of meritocracy in the Chinese context. What this means is that students who cannot be admitted to famous local public high schools still have the opportunity to go to famous universities abroad by attending private international schools due to their parents' economic capital purchasing educational resources and privileges. This research utilises Bourdieu's theory on social reproduction where economically advantaged families can transfer their economic capital into children's cultural and institutionalized capital, culminating in the social advantages and educational privileges that private education can bring. Private schools have restructured their institutional habitus in ways similar to overseas universities. This means that although students may not have inherited middle-class family cultural capital as described in the existing Western literature, they can benefit from the enhanced institutionalised cultural capital to be found within private education establishments, thus leading to the reproduction of further education inequalities.

Background: The School Health Service is to help children at school to achieve the maximum health possible for them to obtain full benefit from their education. This study aimed to examine the differ-ence in the knowledge and practice of school health services between public and private primary schools in Ado Ekiti.Methods: This was a comparative cross-sectional study of public and private primary schools. A multistage sampling technique was used to recruit 425 teachers in 80 public and private schools into the study. A semi-structured, self-administered questionnaire and observational checklist were used for data collection. Data were analysed using SPSS version 25. Descriptive statistics such as per-centages, the sample mean, and frequency tables were done. Inferential statistics were used to test for associations between categorical variables and statistical significance set at p-value < 0.05.Results: The mean age of the teachers in public schools was 42.0 ± 7.5 years, compared to 30.46 ± 7.2 years for teachers in private schools. Married teachers in public and private schools were 202 (92.7%) and 125 (60.4%) respectively. In the public schools, 64 (29.4%) teachers had more than 15 years’ experience and 11 (5.3%) in private schools. More than half of the teachers in both public and private schools had good knowledge of school health services, 118 (59.0%) and 89 (55.3%) respec-tively with p value of 0.477. Only 4 (10%) of the public schools investigated had good practice of school health service while it was 23 (57.5%) in private schools, this was statistically significant with p value of 0.001.Conclusions: There was no significant difference between the knowledge of school health services among teachers of public and private schools. School health services were better practiced in private schools when compared to public schools. Advocacy for strategies that promote a more comprehensive practice of school health services is especially recommended in public schools.

Private-public school differences in the United States: Findings from the second international mathematics study

The healthy development of a private school roots in the guarantee of teachers’ rights and interests. This chapter mainly discusses the core issue of how to improve the relative policies by sorting out the related policies. Meanwhile, this chapter analyzes the effectiveness and problems which cuased by policies’ implementation theoretically. Besides, this chapter makes policy proposals to classify and guarantee private school teachers’ rights and interests eventually. Generally speaking, China has made great achievement in guaranteeing private school teachers’ rights and interests. However, facing the new situation and challenges which are caused by Chinese comprehensive and deep reform, there are still many problems in guaranteeing private school teachers’ rights and interests. In the context of private education classification management, the most appropriate strategies to guarantee the rights and interests of private school teachers are as follows. (1) In order to ensure the implementation of relevant policies, we must complement and improve the laws and regulations, focus on figuring out and regulating Legal Person Registration of for-profit and non-profit private schools, and find out the common interests of all stakeholders. (2) We must clarify the classified support thinking. Governments, sponsors (investors), teachers, and other stakeholders should work together and emphasize on the team building in the high-quality distinctive non-profit private schools. (3) The government should fulfill the obligation of management, playing a regulatory role and taking various measures to guarantee teachers’ rights and interests in private schools. (4) The private schools should fulfill their responsibilities to ensure the legitimate rights and interests of teachers, improving teachers’ salaries and welfare as well as building a multilevel social security system. (5) The education associations should provide professional services, establishing a regular supervision and inspection system to guarantee the implementation of relevant policies.

The study examines the comparative investigation of job motivation, perceived job stress and job satisfaction on teacher's efficacy among public and private secondary school teachers in Ekiti State, Nigeria. The study adopted a descriptive design of correlational type. A Sample of two hundred hundred fifty public and private secondary school teachers were selected using a multi-stage sampling technique. Four scales were used to collect information. Eight research questions were raised and answered in the study. Data collected were analyzed using T-test and Multiple regression analysis. Results indicated that there was a significant difference in the teaching efficacy of public and private secondary school teachers; t (248) = -3.206, p < .05, there was also a significant difference in the job motivation of public and private secondary school teachers; t (248) = -2.159, p < .05, a significant difference also was observed in the perceived stress of public and private secondary school teachers; t (248) = -3.648, p < .05 and a significant difference in the job satisfaction of public and private secondary school teachers was also observed; t (248) = -2.742, p > .05. The Regression analysis revealed that there was a joint effect of the independent variables (job motivation, perceived stress and job satisfaction) on public school teachers' efficacy (R = .598, P < .05). 34.3% of the variance was accounted for by the predictor variables when taken together. The significance of the composite contribution was tested at (P < .05). Furthermore, there was also a joint effect of the independent variables (job motivation, perceived stress and job satisfaction) on private school teachers' efficacy (R = .641, P < .05). 39.4% of the variance was accounted for by the predictor variables when taken together. The significance of the composite contribution was tested at (P < .05). It is recommended from the findings of the study that the welfare of teachers who are the engine room of secondary education is very critical to their efficacy most notably in the private secondary school section. Also, Government, employers and stakeholders in the secondary education must ensure the wellness of teachers in order to facilitate the learning process towards good teaching, self-development of teachers, students and nation at large.

How Effective Are Private Schools in Latin America?

Using multilevel modelling and data from 10 Latin American countries, this paper provides new evidence on the relative effectiveness of public and private schools. There are substantial differences in the achievement of private and public schools, usually around one-half a standard deviation. A small portion of these differences is accounted for by the higher socioeconomic status of students in private schools. A quite substantial portion is explained by the varying peer group characteristics in private and public schools. After accounting for peer characteristics, the average private school effect across all 10 countries is zero, though with some variance around this mean (the effects range between -0.2 and 0.2 standard deviations). Evidence on selection bias is inconclusive, but the paper argues that these effects may constitute an upper bound to the true effects.

Objective: The study aimed to compare spinal deformities among male students of private and government schools in Chandigarh. Method: A total of four hundred (N=400) male school students of Chandigarh, consisting of two hundred (n=200) from private schools and two hundred (n=200) from government schools. The male students were selected by using a convenient sampling technique. The subject’s age ranged between 13 to 17 years. Flex curve and sociometer were used to measure the spinal deformities (thoracic kyphosis, lumber lordosis and scoliosis). Descriptive statistics and t-test were employed to analyze the data. The level of significance was set at 0.05. Result: The result of the study showed that overall, 44.25% of school students in Chandigarh suffered from spinal deformities. Thoracic kyphosis was high in students of private schools whereas lumber lordosis was more prevalent in government schools. Scoliosis was reported in equal numbers of students in private and government schools. A significant difference was found in the degree of flexion in the thoracic region (kyphosis) of the spine between government and private school students. Conclusion: The incidence of thoracic kyphosis might be related to the school type as in the present study thoracic kyphosis was reported to be high among the students of private schools.

This paper looks at the private schooling sector in Pakistan, a country that is seriously behind schedule in achieving the Millennium Development Goals. Using new data, the authors document the phenomenal rise of the private sector in Pakistan and show that an increasing segment of children enrolled in private schools are from rural areas and from middle-class and poorer families. The key element in their rise is their low fees - the average fee of a rural private school in Pakistan is less than a dime a day (Rs.6). They hire predominantly local, female, and moderately educated teachers who have limited alternative opportunities outside the village. Hiring these teachers at low cost allows the savings to be passed on to parents through low fees. This mechanism - the need to hire teachers with a certain demographic profile so that salary costs are minimized - defines the possibility of private schools: where they arise, fees are low. It also defines their limits. Private schools are horizontally constrained in that they arise in villages where there is a pool of secondary educated women. They are also vertically constrained in that they are unlikely to cater to the secondary levels in rural areas, at least until there is an increase in the supply of potential teachers with the required skills and educational levels.

A Dime a Day: The Possibilities and Limits of Private Schooling in Pakistan

The article reveals the leading factors in the development of private education in Ukraine in the second half of the XIX - early XX century. It was found that the second half of XIX - early XX century becomes a period not only of social, scientific, national revival, but also a period of rapid development of private education. The purpose of the article is to reveal the leading factors in the development of private education in Ukraine in the second half of the XIX - early XX century. The historical-logical method made it possible to determine the socio-political and social features of social development and their impact on the development of private education in Ukraine in this historical period; constructive-genetic method made it possible to determine the socio-historical and cultural-pedagogical prerequisites for the development of private education in Ukraine in the second half of the XIX - early XX century and others. The leading area of implementation of pedagogical innovations in this period was a private school, which was explained by the strict legal regulation of the state educational system and at the same time the lack of real steps by the government to modernize it. The key innovations of the pedagogical concept in the innovative activities of a private institution were: the priority of the pupil's personality, the integration of family and school, increasing the requirements for the teacher, who must act as the personification of an active and creative personality. It is established that the leading factors in the development of private education in Ukraine in the second half of the XIX - early XX century were: the presence of legislative regulation of private education; establishment of public-state character of organizational bases of their activity; manifestation of public initiative in the opening of private educational institutions; taking into account in the organizational and substantive aspects of the activities of private schools the social and economic needs of the country's development.

The objective of the study was to investigate the learning environment of public and private schools at secondary level. five public and five private secondary schools were the sample of this stusy in Lahore district. In addition, 100 male and female students of public and private schools was the sample of this research. The data was collected through self-developed instrument by the researcher. Major findings of the research were that students of public schools were more motivated toward studies as compared to students of private schools. In addition, public school teachers created the friendly learning environment as compared to private school teachers. Moreover, learning environment of private schools was free from noise and threats than public school. Furthermore, students of private school are satisfied from the teaching methodology as compared to the students of govt. schools. Finally, treatment of private schools teachers with the students is biased in the class rooms.

In the face of the vigorous development of today's society, with the continuous progress of economy and society, the education policy is constantly improved, and the people's attention to education is constantly increasing, and the demand for high-quality education is gradually rising. Under such a social background, private education has entered a period of rapid development. The number of private schools and the number of students has been on the rise, and the education of private schools has become an important part of the development of education in our country. However, due to the relatively short development time of private schools, the relatively weak teachers in some schools, and the imperfect internal incentive mechanism of schools, there are problems in the incentive mechanism of private teachers in the current stage, such as poor evaluation of professional titles, disharmony between material incentives and spiritual incentives, and low participation of teachers, which is not conducive to the improvement of teachers' enthusiasm and work level. Therefore, improving the incentive mechanism of teachers in private schools is conducive to stimulating the enthusiasm of teachers and improving the quality of teachers' work, and plays a positive role in enhancing the overall strength of private schools. This paper takes S private school as the research object, based on the two-factor theory and equity theory, mainly through some problems in the current teacher incentive mechanism of S private school, and puts forward improvement suggestions in view of existing problems, to provide some references for other private schools.

Our contribution aims to discuss the latest insights of the constitutional case law on the rights of students in private education. For this purpose, the Pridwin judgment of the Constitutional Court of South Africa was chosen, since this decision entailed considerable global resound and invigorated the discussion on the constitutional framework of private schools. Moreover, the Pridwin judgment provided a proper distinction between the rights and interests of the four main actors: students; private school management; parents of students and state authorities. Based on this analysis, we recommend prioritizing the educational rights of students. However, these should be carefully balanced with the legitimate rights and interests of other relevant stakeholders including private school management, parents of students, and state authorities. Although the fact that this topic has rarely been discussed in Central Europe, it will be demonstrated that the rise of private schooling might result in seeking similar constitutional remedies against private school managements in this region. Therefore, it would be worthwhile to integrate Central-Europe into this strand of academic scholarship.