Chapter 2 - Anatomy of Amphibians and Reptiles

Chapter 2 - Anatomy of Amphibians and Reptiles

The highly conserved nature of the thyroid gland and the thyroid system among mammalian species suggests it is critical to species survival. Studies show the thyroid system plays a critical role in the development of several organ systems, including the reproductive tract. Despite its highly conserved nature, the thyroid system can have widely different effects on reproduction and reproductive tract development in different species. The present review focuses on assessing the role of thyroid hormones in human reproduction and reproductive tract development and comparing it to the role of thyroid hormones in laboratory animal reproduction and reproductive tract development. The review also assesses the effects of thyroid dysfunction on reproductive tract development and function in humans and laboratory animals. Consideration of such information is important in designing, conducting, and interpreting studies to assess the potential effects of thyroid toxicants on reproduction and development.

The comparative approach in biological sciences has provided valuable insights into the role of different organ systems in adaptation and evolution, and seeks to establish unifying themes. This approach also plays a key role in identifying model species and systems for the study of specific questions and problems. Further, by applying the concept of homology, information about nonmammalian species may be used either to directly understand mammalian/human regulatory processes, or to formulate hypotheses for direct testing. Individual physiological systems function in a milieu provided by the integrated activities of all of the systems to adapt, adjust and sustain the organism in its environment. The overlapping interfaces between the different physiological systems provide fertile ground for new insights and to enhance our knowledge. These interdisciplinary areas are of great importance if we are to understand the full complexity of organismal function. Of particular interest are the interactions between the reproductive system and the immune system. The reproductive system is unique in that its primary role is to assure the continuity of the species, while the immune system provides internal protection and thus facilitates continued health and survival. The modus operandi of these 2 morphologically diffuse systems involves widely distributed chemical signals in response to environmental input, and both systems must interact for the normal functioning of each. While the major focus of reproductive-immune research has historically been with mammals, and has provided substantial insight into the interactions between these physiological systems, comparative studies offer unique perspectives. Further, dysregulation of normal physiological interactions between the reproductive and immune systems can lead to disorders and diseases effecting one system or the other. Thus, comparative studies of these interactions may shed some light upon the evolutionary mechanisms involved in such cases.

In 2009 an online survey was sent out to various zoos across Europe and Israel to gather information concerning the health status and management of captive white rhinoceroses ( Ceratotherium s. simum ). The goals of the online survey were to understand (1) the occurrence of disease in different organ systems, (2) the role of different management systems in disease incidents and (3) the effect of age and sex on the disease occurrence. Of 70 institutions contacted, 45 responded to the survey. The answers were analysed and baseline information concerning management and health in the various captive settings was collated. The analysis shows that some organ systems (skin, gastrointestinal tract and reproductive tract) are more affected by disease issues than others. The study also shows that veterinarians are still reluctant to sedate or anaesthetizse rhinos in order to make a diagnosis. This results in the long-term and repeated use of antibiotics and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs based solely on visual examination of the animal. This approach can potentially mask disease progression and lead to a significant worsening of the initial problem and ultimately to death.

Background:The endocannabinoid system is a neuromodulatory system responsible for partial regulation of cognitive and emotional processes in the human central nervous system such as behavior, mood disorders, and neurologic disorders such as epilepsy. The endocannabinoid system is also prevalent throughout the peripheral nervous system and human body and its receptors and signaling pathways are present and active in areas including the male and female reproductive tracts and organ systems such as the urologic and gastrointestinal system.Summary:The purpose of this article is to provide the reader with a brief background on the endocannabinoid system and to discuss the implications of the endocannabinoid system in urology as it applies to the male reproductive system, risk of urologic malignancy, and impact on the lower urinary tract, voiding, and urologic pain. It also summaries and discusses the epidemiology and research on cannabis and cannabidiol products.Key message:The endocannabinoid system affects the urologic and reproductive systems. Cannabis products and inhibitors targeting endocannabinoid pathways are being studied for their potential use as treatments for lower urinary tract symptoms and other urologic symptoms. Cannabis use adversely affects spermatogenesis and semen parameters and may be a risk factor for testicular germ cell tumors, however, it may be useful as a potential treatment for urologic symptoms. Cannabidiol products are popular in the consumer marketplace but there is still a paucity of scientific data on their potential medicinal use.

Nitric oxide (nitrogen monoxide; NO) is a simple molecular specie that has diverse, yet versatile biological functions. As a biological emissary, NO and its redox derivatives participate in necessary physiological functions or undesired pathological disturbances (1). NO is a ubiquitous second messenger (2), exerting physiological roles in many organ systems (e.g., musculature, pulmonary, gastrointestinal, immune, renal, endocrinological, and reproductive systems) (3–8), in addition to modulation of regional and systemic circulation (9–11). NO is also involved in the developmental aspects of neurosynaptic plasticity (12,13).

Background: Exposure to lead (Pb) with low levels over a prolonged period will cause health effects such ashypertension, anemia, decreased ability to inhibit the formation of the brain and red blood. If this is not resolvedsoon, disorder may result in disruption to the body’s various organ systems such as the nervous system, kidneys,reproductive system, gastrointestinal tract and anemia.This research aimed to know the association between leadexposure with albumin level and anemia.Methods: Cross-sectional study on 45 subjects research at Small Industry Village (PIK) Kebasen Talang DistrictTegal regency. Pb levels in the blood as biomaker of exposure to decreased levels of albumin and anemia.Result: There were 6 subjects who had BLL over the threshold with mean and standart deviation of 26.8 + 18.85ug/dl.They (33 sub) also had a haemoglobine level over the threshold with the mean of 14.3 + 1.10 gr %. Therewere 31 subjects with level of albumine over the threshold with the mean of 5.7+ 1.39. There was a relationshipbetween blood lead level and albumin level (p value = 0.048), with a correlation coefficient (rho) = -0.205.Conclusion: People who are working with very risky Pb exposure increased levels of albumin in the blood. Key words: Lead exposure, level of Albumin and Hemoglobin.

Background: Exposure to lead ( Pb) continuously for a long time will cause health effects such as hypertension , decreased the ability of the brain and inhibit the formation of red blood, disorder if it is not resolved soon be able to cause disruption to the body's various organ systems such as the nervous system , kidneys , gastrointestinal , reproductive system and hemoglobin levels . Pb in the form of fine particulate air measuring < 7µm, so it can beeasily inhaled through the respiratory tract and enter the blood circulation in the lung. Pb bound to erythrocyte and distrubuted to solf tissues such as bone marrow, brain, kidney and testis. Methods: Cross sectional study on 45 subjects research at small Industry village kebasen talang District Tegal regency . Pb levels in the blood as biomaker of Pb exposure on levels of blood pressure systolic, blood pressure dyastolic rate as a parameter for measuring the hypertention . Results: Subjects with lead concentrations exceeding the threshold 37 people with mean + SD lead conceentration in 26.84 + 18.851 ;Respondents with higher levels of blood pressure systolic exceeded the 33 people with mean + SD blood pressure systolic 146.44 + 17.892 . Respondents with blood pressure dyastolic leve l threshold of 10 people with a mean ± SD blood pressure dyastoliclevels of 85.47 ±11.151 . Conclusion: There is a relationship beetween blood lead concentrations in the blood pressure systolic level ( p value = 0.006 ) with levels of blood pressure dyastolic ( p = 0.036 ). Keywords : Lead exposure, Blood Pressure and Hypertention.

The cynomolgus macaque has become the most used non-human primate species in nonclinical safety assessment during the past decades. This review summarizes the biological data and organ system development milestones of the cynomolgus macaque available in the literature. The cynomolgus macaque is born precocious relative to humans in some organ systems (e.g., nervous, skeletal, respiratory, and gastrointestinal). Organ systems develop, refine, and expand at different rates after birth. In general, the respiratory, gastrointestinal, renal, and hematopoietic systems mature at approximately 3 years of age. The female reproductive, cardiovascular and hepatobiliary systems mature at approximately 4 years of age. The central nervous, skeletal, immune, male reproductive, and endocrine systems complete their development at approximately 5 to 9 years of age. The cynomolgus macaque has no meaningful developmental differences in critical organ systems between 2 and 3 years of age for use in nonclinical safety assessment.

Arsenic and human health effects: A review.

Chronic lead exposure is related to many health diseases in mammals. Exposure to lead forms reactive oxygen species reducing body antioxidant enzymes inflicting injury to numerous macromolecules or cell necrosis. Recent studies have revealed oxidative stress as the vital mechanism for lead toxicity. Lead is found to be toxic to several organ systems such as hematopoietic, skeletal, renal, cardiac, hepatic, and reproductive systems and extremely toxic to the central nervous system (CNS). Curcumin, an active ingredient of the dietary spice, and nanocurcumin, a nanoform of curcumin, are found to decrease toxicity due to lead in various organ systems in mouse models. Higher bioavailability, chelating property, and retention time of nanocurcumin over bulk curcumin may pave the way to expand the utility of nanocurcumin to remove lead toxicity from various organ systems within humans.

Effects of age, weight, and housing system on prevalence of dead on arrival and carcass condemnation causes in laying hens

The post-larval development of the reproductive system in Nassarius vibex was investigated using a histological approach, to establish the sequence of organogenesis and the contribution of different organogenetic components to the adult system. This research is part of a broader investigation with two primary objectives. The first is to provide a detailed analysis of reproductive system development that can be used to re-evaluate existing character sets and generate new characters for reconstructing gastropod phylogenies. The reproductive tract has always been a promising but problematic system to work with in phylogenetic research, because of the uncertain homology of many parts of the system. Most of the reproductive system itself develops during post-larval ontogeny, a phase of gastropod development that has been investigated in very few taxa; thus this line of research has the potential to provide a wealth of new information. The second objective is to establish comparable organogenetic series for representative gastropod taxa that can be used to investigate the significance of heterochronic processes in the evolution of gastropod organ systems. The reproductive system in Nassarius vibex develops very late in ontogeny from two ontogenetic components in the male and three in the female. Development and differentiation of the organ system is not completed until near maturity. In both sexes, ductal components develop first and fuse to form the rudimentary reproductive tract. Gonads and accessory reproductive structures develop after the ductal components are fused, and glandular tissues do not appear until near maturity. The penis does not develop until near maturity. The capsule and albumen glands in this species are broadly conjoined, unlike the situation in other members of Nassarius. The ingesting gland develops between them as a dorsal outgrowth of the glandular lumen.

In 1998, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER) developed regulations requiring the assessment of pharmaceuticals for use in pediatric populations (U.S. Food and Drug Administration [FDA], 1998). In 2003, the Pediatric Research Equity Act (PREA) was enacted to amend the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act to authorize the FDA to require certain research into drugs used in pediatric patients (Pediatric Research Equity Act of 2003). PREA was reauthorized under FDAAA (Food and Drug Administration Amendments Act, 2007) when the Pediatric Review Committee (PeRC) was established and made permanent under FDASIA (Food and Drug Administration Safety and Innovation Act, 2012). The result is that, in the United States, pharmaceutical development for pediatric use requires a pediatric study plan (PSP) to be submitted to the agency and for pediatric clinical trials to be conducted before submission of a New Drug Application (NDA). A similar process exists in Europe following issuance of the Paediatric Regulation (Pediatric Regulation, Regulation (EC) No 1901/2006) requiring that a Paediatric Investigation Plan (PIP) be submitted to the European Medicines Agency (EMA) before the conduct of pediatric clinical trials and before submission of a Marketing Authorization Application (MAA). Regulatory guidance regarding the need and conduct of nonclinical studies in juvenile animals is currently provided by the FDA Guidance for Industry, Nonclinical Safety Evaluation of Pediatric Drug Products (CDER, 2006), the EMEA Guideline On The Need For Non-Clinical Testing In Juvenile Animals On Human Pharmaceuticals For Pediatric Indications (EMEA/CHMP/SWP/169215/2005), and the Japanese Guideline on the Nonclinical Safety Study in Juvenile animals for Pediatric Drugs (Japan, 2012). Work is currently ongoing to harmonize these guidelines under the auspices of the International Conference on Harmonization (ICH S11). Any need for nonclinical testing in juvenile animals should be made based on the intended pediatric clinical plan and the weight-of-evidence of all available data, including animal data and human safety data. Critical to the design of juvenile animal studies is the selection of species and age relative to the age of the human pediatric population and the target organs of concern. A strong understanding of comparative organ system development between humans and laboratory animals is essential. Current nonclinical regulatory guidance focuses on “late developing organ systems” such as the central nervous system, skeletal growth, immune, reproductive, pulmonary, renal, gastrointestinal, and hepatobiliary systems. However, with the emergence of rare disease targets that impact children from birth (including those considered “premature”) there has been an increased focus in recent years on pediatric-only indications and treatment of children under the age of 2 years where all organ systems are undergoing structural and/or functional development and where juvenile animal studies may provide the primary nonclinical support. The following series of papers on development of the lung and kidney, gastrointestinal, and reproductive systems provide updates to the corresponding International Life Sciences Institute–Health and Environmental Sciences Institute publications in 2003 (Beckman and Feuston, 2003; Hew and Keller, 2003; Marty, Chapin, Parks, & Thorsrud 2003; Zoetis & Hurtt, 2003a, 2003b) and 2005 (Walthall, Cappon, Hurtt, & Zoetis, 2005). In addition, two new reviews are included addressing development of the ear and eye. Each review provides a tabulated summary of development comparing human with common laboratory animals. Jim Ridings GlaxoSmithKline, Ware, United Kingdom

Individual ability to understand what is taught is the first step to improve students' cognitive learning outcomes. However, often students are not able to understand existing concepts, misinterpret concepts, or concepts received are not in accordance with the concepts of experts. This research is a descriptive research with a survey method. This study aims to determine the percentage of students who master the concept, do not know the concept, experience misconceptions (misconceptions) and lucky guesses (lucky guesses) and analyze the level of student understanding of the material on organ systems. The sub-matter included is the reproductive system, digestive system, respiratory system, and excretory system. The benefits of this research can also be recommended in compiling appropriate learning materials so that misunderstandings can be minimized. The population in this study were 25 basic biology education students. The instrument used is a multiple choice question consisting of 50 questions on organ system material equipped with a Certainty of Response Index (CRI) value on a scale of 0-5. The instruments used were interview sheets and true-false choice tests along with the reasons accompanied by. Based on the research data obtained, it can be described that the average respondent has a misconception of 48% as indicated by the number of respondents who answered incorrectly with high CRI criteria. Almost every sub-chapter of material on organ systems has misconceptions. Misconceptions about the hormonal system accounted for the largest percentage of the total percentage of misconceptions. This is indicated by the average misconception in the material of 14 out of the total. Based on these findings it can be used as an evaluation to create learning tools that will be implemented through learning in general biology courses.&#x0D; Key Words: CRI, Misconception, Teaching material