Changing network structures and differentiated competition in the global photovoltaic product trade: an industrial chain perspective

Photovoltaic industry trade has become a global trade activity, and a wide range of photovoltaic trade relations have been formed between countries. In order to further strengthen and balance trade relations, this paper analyzes global photovoltaic (PV) trade from the perspective of complex networks. We employ network indicators and the cascading process of risk propagation to analyze the evolution features and the vulnerability of the PV trade network. Firstly, we establish the global PV trade networks from 2000 to 2021 based on the PV trade flow between countries. We then explore evolution features and analyze the influencing factors of the trade network structure. Finally, we simulate the cascading process of risk propagation on the trade network based on an improved bootstrap percolation model. The evolution features reveal the following three results: (1) the scale of global PV trade continues to grow, and the participation of some countries has increased significantly; (2) the global PV trade network has small-world characteristics, and the related products have high circulation efficiency; and (3) the global PV trade network has a core-periphery structure, while a few countries drive most of the trade. China, Germany, and the U.S. are the top PV traders. Some Asian countries, such as Vietnam, are gradually increasing their share of the market. The QAP regression analysis shows that the gaps in GDP and electricity access rate are the biggest facilitating and hindering factors in the global PV trade, respectively. The simulation results show that the global PV trade network is vulnerable to targeted risk and is robust to randomness risk.

Based on the trade data of the global photovoltaic (PV) industry chain from 2005 to 2021, this paper constructs a global PV industry chain trade network model and analyzes its static resilience and dynamic resilience characteristics, reaching the following conclusions. The static resilience of the trade network is analyzed through aggregation, transmission, hierarchy and matching. The upstream polysilicon trade network is relatively loose, while the midstream and downstream trade networks appear to aggregate significantly. The average path length is short and the average clustering coefficient is high, indicating that the global PV industry chain trade network has high transmission efficiency and small-world characteristics. The global PV industry chain trade network is hierarchical. The degree distribution slope of the upstream polysilicon trade network is the largest and has a high level of hierarchy. Meanwhile, the global PV industry chain trade network is a heterogeneous network, which strengthens the connection between the core countries and edge countries, making the global PV industry chain trade network more resilient. Regarding the dynamic resilience of the trade network, the deterministic disturbance strategies have a greater impact on network performance than the random disturbance strategies, indicating that targeted impacts exert greater impact on the resilience of the global PV industry chain trade network. For the deterministic disturbance strategy, the interference based on intermediate centrality has a higher impact on the overall resilience of the network than the interference based on degree centrality, thus the influence of the country with strong trade radiating ability on the network elasticity is greater than that of the country with strong transit ability.

As resource shortages and environmental problems keep coming up, economies urgently need renewable energies as the new driving force for development. As one of the representatives of renewable energy, the photovoltaic (PV)'s trade has received much attention from all walks of life. Based on bilateral PV trade data, complex network methods and exponential random graph models (ERGM), this paper constructs global PV trade networks (PVTNs) during 2000-2019, describes detailed evolution features and verifies the influencing factors of the PVTNs. We find that (1) PVTNs have obvious characteristics of the small-world network, accompanied by disassortativity and low reciprocity. (2) Asia, North America, and Europe are the top 3 leading regions in the PVTNs. (3) China is the largest exporter, and the US is the leading recipient. Germany is an essential importer as well as exporter of PVTNs. (4) The formation and evolution of the PVTNs are significantly affected by transitivity, reciprocity, and stability. PV trade is more possible when economy-pairs are WTO members, located on the same continent, or with asymmetrical urbanization rates, industrialization rates, technological level or environmental supervision strength. Specifically, economies with higher industrialization rates, technological levels, stricter environmental regulations or lower urbanization rates are more likely to import PV. Economies with higher economic development, larger area, and greater trade openness are more inclined to trade PV. Besides, economic partners that share a religion or language, have common historical colonial ties or geographic borders or sign regional trade agreements are more likely to trade PV.

With the development of technology and the widespread adoption of digital technology, the trade volume of electronic products keeps improving. For a country’s trade situation, it is important to study the global trade of electronic products. In this paper, the data on global trade in electronic products from 240–246 countries and regions from 2000 to 2021 are used to create complex network models. Characteristic indicators, such as the network density, average clustering coefficient, average path length, and centrality are used to analyze the evolution of the global electronic product trade network pattern. The results of the complex network analysis show the following: (1) Since 2000, global electronic products have shown a trend of fluctuating growth, showing a state of three-pole differentiation. In addition, the trade volume is unevenly distributed, with the United States and China in the leading positions. (2) The global electronics trade network has significant scale-free and small-world characteristics, with high network density and close ties between countries. (3) There are differences between the closeness centrality and the betweenness centrality of the global electronic product trade network. The core countries are mainly in Europe and North America, while the influence of Asian countries is rising. (4) The global electronic product trade network has a clear division of communities and undergoes dynamic evolution. (5) Global electronic product trade is influenced by natural resources, economic and technological strength, political culture, and other factors. Finally, three policy suggestions are made for the development of China’s electronics trade.

Tungsten is an irreplaceable primary material and strategic resource for national economic development and modern national defense security. The endowment of tungsten ore resources in various countries is different; we should not only focus on the availability of tungsten ore itself but also the sustainability of its entire process from upstream supply to downstream industry demand. Analyzing the evolution of the supply and demand patterns of tungsten ore trade from the perspective of the industrial chain, identifying the key supply and demand subjects, and exploring the influencing factors of trade has become an important research topic. Therefore, we construct global tungsten trade networks based on the industrial chain, analyze its overall characteristics, explore critical trade supply and demand entities, and identify China’s trade position. We got some meaningful results: (1) The global tungsten trade networks have prominent power-law distribution characteristics. The trend of trade globalization is evident, but the dominance is still in the hands of a few developed countries or developing countries with developed manufacturing industries. (2) In different parts of the tungsten industry chain, the impact of resource endowment, industrial technology level, and geographical location on the country’s trade role is different. (3) China’s position in the global tungsten resource industry chain and value chain is constantly improving, but there is still a risk of high-end technology being “stuck.” This provides some suggestions for the systematic understanding of the evolution of the trade pattern of the tungsten industry chain and how countries occupy a dominant position in the game of tungsten resources.

Understanding the global trade network in the printing industry is crucial for promoting sustainable development and cultural exchange and knowledge dissemination. However, the extant literature does not reveal the contours of the global cultural printed material trade network. This paper uses a social network analysis and QAP analysis to explore the global printing industry trade network pattern. The aim of this paper is to discern the core and emerging nodes and explore the evolutional characteristics on the network spatial linkage and country role. The results show the following: ① The printing industry’s global trade network is growing increasingly intricate, with trade links between nations (regions) becoming closer, the network’s connectivity steadily improving, and the hierarchical structure becoming more apparent. ② Germany, France, and Belgium are important intermediary bridges. The “circle of friends” in the trade of cultural products has a growing effect, and China can more easily establish close ties with Southeast Asia, Northern Europe, and Central and Eastern Europe. ③ The industrial chain and geographical proximity are the primary factors in the formation of the trade network. Economic proximity and political proximity significantly and positively contribute to the formation of the trade network, while institutional stability gradually plays a weaker role. As for cultural proximity, a common language and colonial relationship will positively contribute to the formation of a network, while immigrants have no obvious impact. Digital technology is becoming an “emerging force”. Additionally, this paper extends sustainable policies and recommendations for the global cultural trade.

Functional trade patterns and their contributions to international photovoltaic trade revealed by network motifs

Who is the core? Reveal the heterogeneity of global rare earth trade structure from the perspective of industrial chain

Evolutionary characteristics and structural dependence determinants of global lithium trade network: An industry chain perspective

The impact of geopolitical relations on the evolution of cobalt trade network from the perspective of industrial chain

PurposeThrough empirical analysis of Sino-US solar photovoltaic (PV) trade, this paper aims to evaluate the complementarity of Sino-US solar PV trade by adopting trade combination degree (TCD) index, export similarity index (SI) and trade complementarity index (TCI). It also explores the role of trade disputes over Sino-US solar PV trade between China and the USA and important factors affecting the complementarity of the trade.Design/methodology/approachBased on the comparative advantage theory, this paper selects the TCD, export SI and TCI to evaluate the complementarity of Sino-US solar PV trade comprehensively. Among them, TCD and SI can directly reflect the degree of cooperation and competition of Sino-US solar PV trade. Finally, the authors further analyze the decisive factors affecting the complementarity of Sino-US PV trade by entropy weight method and multiple linear regression analysis on the influencing factors of TCI.FindingsThe solar PV trade between China and the USA still has a close relationship, and there is solar PV trade cooperation and competition between the two countries. The factors affecting the complementarity of Sino-US solar PV trade are mainly exchange rate levels rather than trade disputes between China and the USA. The solar PV trade policies of China and the USA will have a great negative impact on the global supply chain of solar PV products. The major solar PV products in China and the USA have a clear division in the global supply chain and still have a strong trade complementarity.Originality/valueThis paper conducts an empirical analysis of the Sino-US solar PV trade rather than a policy discussion. This research has important practical significance for the healthy and sustainable development of solar PV trade for both countries. It can also provide references to the current trade disputes between China and the USA in a broader sense.

With the application of tin in photovoltaic power generation, new energy vehicles, and other emerging industries, the contradiction between the supply and demand of tin resources has become increasingly prominent, which further exacerbates the competition between tin resource importing and exporting countries. According to the global trade data from 2002 to 2022, this paper classifies five kinds of tin-containing products into three commodity types, namely, upstream, midstream, and downstream, and constructs the international trade network, import competition network, and export competition network. This paper selects key competitive countries and relationships, examines the characteristics of specific communities, and analyzes the network’s structural features and evolution patterns over time. The results showed that: (1) The distribution of the intensity of competition in tin products is very uneven, the trend of oligopoly in upstream product competition is obvious, and the competition in midstream and downstream products is getting more and more intense. (2) The tin industry chain has developed a tripartite pattern of import competition in Asia, Europe, and North America. Developed countries primarily compete in midstream tin products, while developing countries focus on importing upstream and downstream tin products. (3) The export competition for tin products is primarily concentrated in Asia, with Malaysia losing its centrality and Myanmar, Indonesia, and China gaining the centrality. (4) The competition communication in upstream tin products is more evident than in midstream and downstream products, and their stability is stronger. The above analysis can help countries identify their trade competitors and provide suggestions for finding new partners.

The global trade of solar photovoltaic (PV) products substantially contributes to increases in solar power generation and carbon emissions reductions. This paper depicts global PV product trade patterns, explores emissions reduction potential, and evaluates the impeding effect of tariff barriers on global PV product trade and emissions reductions. Solar power generation will result in a reduction of emissions in a range of 50–180 gigatons of carbon dioxide equivalent (GtCO2e) between 2017 and 2060 in a business as usual (BAU) scenario. Compared with BAU, during 2017–2060, global total solar cell and module production and installation will increase by roughly 750 gigawatts (GW) if half of the status quo trade barrier are removed, while it will decrease by 160–370 GW under tensioned trade barrier scenarios. Trade barrier reduction by half from the 2017 status quo level will increase the net carbon emissions mitigation potential by 4–12 GtCO2e by 2060, while extra trade barrier imposition will result in global net carbon emissions mitigation potential decreasing by up to 3–4 GtCO2e by 2060. Well-coordinated policy and institutional reforms are recommended to facilitate PV product trade and to deliver the related global environmental benefits.

Exploring the complex structural evolution of global primary product trade network

Growing global supply chain uncertainties significantly threaten China’s forage import security. The evolving characteristics of the global forage trade network directly impact the stability of China’s supply. This study constructs a directed, weighted trade network based on global forage products trade data (2000–2024). Using complex network analysis methods, it systematically analyzes the network’s topological structure and evolutionary patterns, with a focus on their impact on China’s import security. The study addresses the following questions: What evolutionary patterns does the global forage trade network exhibit in terms of its topological structure? How does the evolution of this network impact the import security of forage products in China, specifically regarding supply chain stability and risk resilience? The research findings indicate the following: (1) From 2000 to 2024, the total volume of global forage products trade increased by 48.17%, primarily driven by forage products excluding alfalfa meal and pellets, which accounted for an average of 82.04% of volume annually. Additionally, the number of participating countries grew by 21.95%. (2) The global forage products trade network follows a power–law distribution, characterized by increasing network density, a clustering coefficient that initially declines and then rises, and a shortening of the average path length. (3) The core structure of the global forage products trade network shows an evolutionary trend of diffusion from core nodes in North America, Oceania, and Asia to multiple core nodes, including those in North America, Oceania, Europe, Africa, and Asia. (4) China’s forage products trade network displays distinct phase characteristics; however, imports face significant risks from high supply chain dependency and exposure to international price fluctuations. Based on these conclusions, it is recommended that China actively expands trade relations with potential product-exporting countries in Africa, encouraging enterprises to “go global.” Additionally, China should establish a three-dimensional supply chain security system, comprising maritime, land, and storage components, to enhance risk resistance and import safety.