Challenging tensions: critical, theoretical and empirical perspectives on social enterprise

This Thematic Issue seeks to explore critical perspectives of an international nature on social innovation (SI), social enterprise (SE) and/or social solidarity economy (SSE). The aim is to examine the grand narrative, explore the ontological assumptions of the field, challenge the normative and present alternatives that draw attention to political economy, critical theory and critical management studies. Critical perspectives emerged in social innovation (SI) literature as a concerted effort sometime in 2008. A few voices sounded from the edges of the field much earlier. Ash Amin, Professor of Geography at Durham University, inspected the new favourite of public policy way back in 2002, discarded it as a "a poor substitute for a welfare state" and never returned to the subject. There were heated debates that challenged the grand narrative of SI at the International Social Innovation Research Conferences (ISIRC) (once called the Social Enterprise Research Conference before becoming ISIRC with the involvement of the social innovation theme from Skoll Centre). The Voluntary Sector Studies Network (VSSN) conferences picked away at the promise of unlimited performance and achievement of the upstart SE in a mature voluntary and charity network (

The concept of social entrepreneurship and enterprise has enjoyed a meteoric rise. Its appeal extends over a broad ideological spectrum, and it embraces a range of activities, from solidarity economy to changes within the capitalist market economy. However, the growing popularity of social enterprise has not gone unchallenged. Some see it as the privatization of social choices that belong in the public and civic domain. This article asks: How is the social constituted in social entrepreneurship? After reviewing why social entrepreneurship has become an issue and exploring its various definitions, it argues that a dominant current in the social entrepreneurship literature glorifies the individual entrepreneur while underemphasizing the importance of social processes. Social enterprise is dependent on the social entrepreneur’s civic engagement in mobilizing support. This engagement is critical for the economic, social, and political sustainability of the social enterprise. For social entrepreneurship to enjoy success in a sustained manner, it must first and foremost be “social.”

PurposeTo mitigate uncertainties in the labour market, it has been argued that technology diffusion in entrepreneurship drive is essential to increase employment capacity. Against this backdrop, this study examined how social entrepreneurship and technology diffusion impact future employment in Nigeria. In addition, this study aims to contribute to the policy dialogue for the realisation of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of decent work and economic growth (SDG-8) and industry, innovation and infrastructure (SDG-9).Design/methodology/approachThe data from the youth entrepreneurship with innovation (YouWiN) baseline survey was used. The study applied propensity score matching to achieve its objectives. This study defines social entrepreneurship as firms established solely to create social values. Similarly, technology diffusion is captured by the firm’s ownership of a website and communication with clients through email, while future employment is captured by the estimated number of people the business may employ in the next five years, if still in operation.FindingsThe results from the study show that social entrepreneurship and technology diffusion has a significant impact on future employment. The result implies that social entrepreneurship may contribute approximately 21% to the employment level in the future. Similarly, technology diffusion – ownership of a website and communication with clients through email increase the firm’s ability to contribute to future employment by 65% and 71%, respectively.Research limitations/implicationsOne of the limitations of the research is that the study is quantitative in nature. Thus, qualitative information that could have added additional value to the study was not considered. As a recommendation, further studies should consider using a mixed method by adding qualitative information while examining the concept of social entrepreneurship and employment.Practical implicationsThese findings suggest that ownership of a website, communicating with clients via email and involvement in social entrepreneurship contribute significantly to future employment in Nigeria. This finding shows that social entrepreneurship is crucial for reducing future employment uncertainties. Social enterprises will enhance the capacity of the economy to attain sustainable economic development. Therefore, the study concludes by recommending that policies to enhance social entrepreneurship awareness and promotion should be implanted to expand the knowledge of social enterprise as a unique business entity that drives employment.Social implicationsThese findings suggest that ownership of a website, communicating with clients via email and involvement in social entrepreneurship contribute significantly to future employment in Nigeria. This finding shows that social entrepreneurship is crucial for reducing future employment uncertainties. Social enterprises will enhance the capacity of the economy to attain sustainable economic development. Therefore, the study concludes by recommending that policies to enhance social entrepreneurship awareness and promotion should be implanted to expand the knowledge of social enterprise as a unique business entity that drives employment.Originality/valueThough prior studies have examined the contribution of entrepreneurship to employment; however, integration of technology diffusion in the concept of social entrepreneurship and employment literature is relatively sparse. Therefore, this study fills this gap by investigating how the diffusion of technology by social entrepreneurs impacts future employment in Nigeria.

Learning outcomes By the end of their studies, students are expected to: undergraduate level. Learning objective 1: Describe the concept of social entrepreneurship. Learning objective 2: Explain the sources and challenges of funding social entrepreneurial activities. Learning objective 3: Discuss the different strategies that social entrepreneurs may use to raise funds. Postgraduate level. Learning Objective 1: Use theory to explain the concept of social entrepreneurship. Learning objective 2: Discuss the role of social capital in facilitating resource acquisition for social entrepreneurial activities. Learning objective 3: Evaluate the current action for fundamental change and development (AFFCAD) funding model and propose strategies that may be used by a social enterprise to achieve financial sustainability when donor funding expires. Case overview/synopsis The past decade has seen the emergence of many social enterprises from disadvantaged communities in low-income countries, seeking to provide solutions to social problems, which in developed countries would normally be addressed by government sponsored welfare programmes. The social entrepreneurs behind such initiatives are typically drawn from the disadvantaged communities they serve. They are often young people committed to improving the lives of their most disadvantaged community members. Being poor themselves and located in the poorest communities, establishing their enterprise faces fundamental challenges of obtaining resources and if accessed, sustaining the flow of resources to continue and grow their enterprise. Targeting external donors and mobilizing social resources within their community is a typical route to get their enterprise off the ground, but sustaining momentum when donor funding ceases requires changes of strategy and management. How are young social entrepreneurs dealing with these challenges? The case focusses on AFFCAD, a social enterprise founded by Mohammed Kisirisa and his three friends to support poor people in Bwaise, the largest slum in Kampala city. It illustrates how, like many other similar social enterprise teams, the AFFCAD team struggled to establish itself and its continuing difficulties in trying to financially sustain its activities. The case demonstrates how the youngsters mobilised social networks and collective action to gain access to donor funding and how they are modifying this strategy as donor funding expires. From an academic perspective, a positive theory of social entrepreneurship (Santos, 2012) is applied to create an understanding of the concept of social entrepreneurship. The case uses the social capital theory to demonstrate the role played by social ties in enabling social entrepreneurs to access financial and non-financial support in a resource scarce context (Bourdieu, 1983; Coleman, 1988, 1990). The National Council for Voluntary Organisations Income Spectrum is used as a tool to develop the options available for the AFFCAD team to sustain their activities in the absence of donor support. The case provides evidence that social entrepreneurs are not limited by an initial lack of resources especially if they create productive relationships at multiple levels in the communities where they work. However, their continued success depends on the ability to reinvent themselves by identifying ways to generate revenue to achieve their social goals. Complexity academic level This case study is aimed at Bachelor of Entrepreneurship students, MBA, MSc. Entrepreneurship and Masters of Social Innovation students. Supplementary materials Teaching Notes are available for educators only. Subject code CSS 3: Entrepreneurship.

A decade ago the concept of social entrepreneurship was rarely discussed in Malaysia even though the practice of delivering social values to the population has been around for years. Efforts that combined the concept of entrepreneurship and social development were established years before the emergence of the term. Only in recent years the concept of social entrepreneurship is making a significant breakthrough and attaining more interest not only from social entrepreneurs but also academics and policy makers due to globalized economic system that in turn has resulted in the emergence of social entrepreneurship within a complex framework of political, economic and social changes occurring at the global, national and local levels. Nevertheless, the concept and definitions of social entrepreneurship, social entrepreneur and social enterprise need to be comprehended by those who are involved in the sector to further sustain the development of pertinent initiatives. Therefore, this paper reviews current literature pertaining the concepts and definitions of social entrepreneurship, social entrepreneur and social enterprise and recent development of the sector in Malaysia.

A decade ago the concept of social entrepreneurship was rarely discussed in Malaysia even though the practice of delivering social values to the population has been around for years. Efforts that combined the concept of entrepreneurship and social development were established years before the emergence of the term. Only in recent years the concept of social entrepreneurship is making a significant breakthrough and attaining more interest not only from social entrepreneurs but also academics and policy makers due to globalized economic system that in turn has resulted in the emergence of social entrepreneurship within a complex framework of political, economic and social changes occurring at the global, national and local levels. Nevertheless, the concept and definitions of social entrepreneurship, social entrepreneur and social enterprise need to be comprehended by those who are involved in the sector to further sustain the development of pertinent initiatives. Therefore, this paper reviews current literature pertaining the concepts and definitions of social entrepreneurship, social entrepreneur and social enterprise and recent development of the sector in Malaysia.

Social entrepreneurship is one of the fastest growing areas of entrepreneurship. Since the beginning of 21st century, the popularity of social entrepreneurship steadily, but gradually increases. Currently, social enterprises are operating similarly to traditional ones and thus can be seen separate from charity organizations. This concept is well practiced in emerging economies. The concept of a social enterprise and entrepreneurship can be approached in many different ways. The European Union has an operational definition of a social enterprise. In addition, in various European countries, there are some additional laws and regulations defining social entrepreneurship or a social enterprise. In Latvia, both the definition of social entrepreneurship and social enterprises are included in the Law on Social Entrepreneurship. In Sweden or Estonia, there are no common definition or legal framework for social enterprises. In Finland, the situation is the same, but there is a law concerning work integration enterprises. The EU´s operational definition for social enterprises is common for all European countries. The Baltic States and the Scandinavian countries have different perceptions of social entrepreneurship among the population and entrepreneurs. The paper analyses social enterprises in four European countries: Latvia, Estonia, Sweden and Finland by using national and EU-level knowledge sources. In the next phase, two case studies of social enterprises from each country are analysed according to the EU´s operational definition. As a result, the authors identified the similarities and differences of social enterprises in terms of their social mission, business models and governance models and suggested directions for future research.

The concepts of social enterprise and social entrepreneurship have been ever more present in public discourse during the past 20–30 years, along with radically different views of the kind and level of socioeconomic or political change that these specific economic ventures (should) aim for. Although social enterprise discourse is often dominated by neoliberal perspectives, which present market-based activity as simply an efficient means of solving all kinds of more or less local and isolated social problems, more critically minded strands of research have been questioning this approach and calling for a broader and more critical perspective. This paper aims to see how these opposing discourses are represented in the Croatian news media, as a discursive sphere which is accessible to a broad public. The analysis focuses on online media in the period 2007–2019 and is based on a comparison between three media types: the online versions of a national daily newspaper and a regional daily newspaper, as well as an online-only progressive non-profit news site. A stark contrast is apparent between mainstream commercial media and alternative non-profit media, i.e. a dominance of neoliberal “enterprise discourse” in the former and more emphasis on a broader political and economic agenda calling for more fundamental, comprehensive and long-term change in the latter.

This introductory article to the special issue, Social Innovation, Social Enterprise, and Social Entrepreneurship (SE/SI) in Social Work and Human Services, positions SE/SI as embedded in the profession’s history as an integral sub-field of practice and research. It advances three arguments: SE/SI has been part of social work practice since the inception of the profession; social work entrepreneurship is globally distributed and contextually responsive; and deliberate engagement with SE/SI is necessary for the field’s future relevance. This article outlines foundational concepts, traces historical developments from settlement houses and early work-integration initiatives to contemporary hybrid models, and situates this legacy within current global challenges. It also introduces the contributions in this issue, grouped into three thematic areas that reflect these arguments. The introduction underscores SE/SI as vital to social work and human services’ capacity to address complex crises in turbulent times while advancing equity, sustainability, and well-being.

During the economic instability, crisis processes in economic relations, and the growing prospects of a new “step” of the global economic crisis, theoretical and applied research in the field of legal support for strengthening and supporting economic development, small and medium-sized businesses, and digital technologies in the Russian Federation plays a great role. The purpose of the study: A legal study of the current legislation in order to apply the concept of synergy of family business and social entrepreneurship for the effective implementation of economic processes and solving technological problems, identify the problems of family business development in the new economic realities and propose some ways to solve them at the legislative level. The object of the study is a set of economic, entrepreneurial, civil-legal relations that arise in the implementation of family business and social entrepreneurship in modern economic realities based on new technologies. Methods: General scientific and private scientific methods of scientific cognition were used in the study: systematic, historical, logical, comparative-legal, formal-legal, and others. Novelty: It is proved that social entrepreneurship and family business should be a system-forming link in economic relations, linking the state with small and medium-sized businesses. The introduction of such form of business (social and family entrepreneurship) should eliminate many economic problems and gaps in the legal regulation of issues that arise while conducting economic activities by family members. The necessity of separating social entrepreneurship and family business into a separate economic and legal category is justified, and the expediency of consolidating the concept of social entrepreneurship and family enterprise at the federal level is proved.

In the Czech Republic, the concept of social entrepreneurship is still being developed and lacks, for example, systematic public support and regulation. In addition, the total number of social enterprises operating in the Czech Republic is low and thus, the concept of social entrepreneurship cannot reach its potential. To accelerate this development, raising awareness of social entrepreneurship among the Czech population may be important. Based on the survey carried out among 200 possible stakeholders of Czech social enterprises we explored the awareness and attitudes of selected groups of people towards social entrepreneurship. These groups of people are disabled people as typical employees of Czech social enterprises and university students as possible future founders of these enterprises. Our research project focuses on three issues: i) the level of awareness of the concept of social entrepreneurship among university students and disabled people; ii) the position of disabled people in the current labour market iii) the willingness of students to become entrepreneurs and to start business with social purpose. During the research, we used the method of structured questionnaires. The research shows that the awareness of the concept of social entrepreneurship is generally low. Nevertheless, students consider becoming entrepreneurs and starting a business with social purpose. The research also shows that according to the opinion of the respondents, it is difficult to find employment as a disabled person and that the current labour market does not offer enough vacant positions which could be interesting for these persons. From this perspective, we can assess further development of Czech social enterprises (especially of Work Integration Social Enterprises) as very important.

Social entrepreneurship is defined as creating solutions from the perspective of entrepreneurship in the face of existing problems in the society. There are certain common points between the social work profession and discipline, which produces solutions with a rights-based approach to social problems, and the concept of social entrepreneurship, whose awareness has increased recently. Both social work practices and social initiatives support the development and change of society by producing creative and innovative solutions against social problems within the framework of human values. Social initiatives that help improve social functionality by enabling individuals to participate actively in society have become a part of social welfare policy. The aim of this study is to examine the relationship between the concept of social entrepreneurship, which is an important position in terms of social change and development, and social work profession and discipline. To achieve this goal, the concepts of entrepreneurship, social entrepreneurship, and social work have been examined first. Then, the common roles and values of social entrepreneurs and social workers are examined. Finally, the study was completed by including the reflections of the relationship between these two areas on the application.

Urgency of the research. Social entrepreneurship covers a wide range of tasks from area of social policy that should ensure the normal living conditions of the local community. From this point of view, the main task of social entrepreneurship is to improve the well-being of local community and meet its needs by the implementation of social infrastructure services. Target setting. In the paper the hypothesis is formulated that Ukraine has worse conditions for the formation and development of social entrepreneurship than Poland. The study is proved that development of social entrepreneurship in Poland in the light of EU regional policy consists in the support of social enterprises by the state in accordance with the National Program for Social Economy Development, the European Union. Actual scientific researches and issues analysis. Some aspects of social entrepreneurship and community development are covered by the studies of such scientists as J. Defourny, J. Hausner, Jan-U. Sandal, A. Nicholls, G. Keohane, J. Kerlin, O. Pankiv and others. Uninvestigated parts of general matters defining. It should be admitted that there is a problem of state support for social enterprises at the appropriate level in Ukraine. This only deepens the differences between the social enterprises in Ukraine and Poland. It is worth noting that as a consequence of this, social entrepreneurship of Ukraine is more business-oriented than in Poland. The research objective. The study on the social entrepreneurship and its impact on the local community development undertaken at national and regional levels, i.e. on statistical material concerning 22 regions of Ukraine and 16 voivodships of Poland. The study used a comparative method of developing social entrepreneurship in Poland and Ukraine. In addition, the study carried out in the paper was enriched with drawings made on the basis of graphic and cartographic data presentation methods. The statement of basic materials. As part of the research, the concept of social entrepreneurship (prosocial business) was defined, the features of the social entrepreneurship in Poland and Ukraine were analysed, and the ways of the social entrepreneurship development in Ukraine were presented. Conclusions. Based on the results obtained, recommendations were presented to strengthen and develop social entrepreneurship in Ukraine.

Social Entrepreneurship and COVID‐19

The emergence of entrepreneurship as an activity which addresses enduring social or environmental challenges has been a source of innovation, promise and insight for practitioners and scholars alike. While researchers have contributed to understandings of social entrepreneurship and social enterprise in many contexts, it is a curious anomaly of social entrepreneurship scholarship that so little consideration has been given to its application within international humanitarian non-government organizations (INGOs) and aid agencies. The lack of research is notable because these development organizations have tremendous potential to realize the benefits of social entrepreneurship due to their capability and capacity that has been developed through the provision of community and economic development programs in the world’s most vulnerable communities. We therefore lack relevant theory to explain and guide action in this sector. As INGOs pursue or facilitate social entrepreneurship to increase their impact and/or make their activities more financially sustainable, they are forced to contend with the competing logics (social and commercial) of this activity itself, but also with the ways in which this conflicts with their own dominant development (social) logic. These logics are based on the institutional parameters of the category in which the organization operates, i.e., private, public or non-profit sector (Doherty et al., 2014). Billis (2010) provides us with the following organizational templates to explicate category logics (Table 20.1). This is a useful framework for illustrating not only how social entrepreneurs and social enterprises combine competing logics but how this can be problematic in terms of governance and resourcing (cf. Doherty et al., 2014; Newth and Woods, 2014). International development agencies are being forced to respond to many geopolitical, economic and technological environment changes. The threats and opportunities these changes create will likely necessitate a degree of hybridization. Hybrid organizations are those that combine institutional logics (Battilana and Dorado, 2010; Doherty et al., 2014; Pache and Santos, 2013). Examples of such organizations include social enterprises which combine commercial and social logics (Doherty et al., 2014); microfinance organizations which combinedevelopment and banking logics (Battilana et al., 2015), public-private partnerships which combine state, market and civil society logics (Jay, 2013), and research centers and education institutions which combine scientific or academic with market logics (cf. Pache and Santos, 2013). These organizations also bridge, or blur, institutional fields (Tracey et al., 2011). Institutional logics are understood to be the “taken for granted social prescriptions that represent shared understandings of what constitutes legitimate goals and how they may be pursued” (Battilana and Dorado, 2010, 1420). Hybrid organization research in social entrepreneurship is particularly concerned with organizations that combine logics that would otherwise be considered incompatible. This chapter uses Shepherd and Patzelt (2011) as an organizing framework to illustrate the opportunities that social entrepreneurship offers INGOs, all of which are relevant to the organization under examination here. The points within an INGO that are challenged by the pursuit of social entrepreneurship are then identified and discussed in terms of how changes at these points force, or require, hybridity. This discussion seeks to contribute to the literature around hybridization in social entrepreneurship and enterprise by drawing out the specific aspects of a particular non-profit that are challenged by the hybrid logic of social entrepreneurship strategies and initiatives. Drawing on Newth and Woods’ (2014) development of Schumpeter’s (1934) notion of resistance as it applies to social entrepreneurship and institutional theory, the micro-level institutional bases for tension and resistance to social entrepreneurship are considered via an in-depth case study. This chapter’s empirical application of Shepherd and Patzelt’s (2011) framework and its combination with institutional theory, specifically institutional logics, contributes to social and sustainable entrepreneurship theory. It also provides specific insight into the application of this theory in the international development sector. This represents an initial step in addressing the lack of research into social entrepreneurship in this sector in general, and towards building theory which explains and informs the contextual bases thatTable 20.1 Organizational templatesInstitutional guideGovernorship Owners Business model/ revenuePrivate Market forces Share of ownershipShareholders SalesPublic Public benefit and collective choiceElected representativesCitizens and stateTaxationNon-profit Social and environmental goalsElected representatives or appointed trusteesMembers Donations, membership fees and legaciesenable and constrain entrepreneurial action in established development organizations.