Causal relationships in king’s littleneck clam fisheries ( Ameghinomya antiqua , P.P. King, 1832), Los Lagos Region, Chile

Equatorial Pacific sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies in the Center for Ocean–Land–Atmosphere Studies (COLA) interactive ensemble coupled general circulation model show near-annual variability as well as biennial El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) variability. There are two types of near-annual modes: a westward propagating mode and a stationary mode. For the westward propagating near-annual mode, warm SST anomalies are generated in the eastern equatorial Pacific in boreal spring and propagate westward in boreal summer. Consistent westward propagation is seen in precipitation, surface wind, and ocean current. For the stationary near-annual mode, warm SST anomalies develop near the date line in boreal winter and decay locally in boreal spring. Westward propagation of warm SST anomalies also appears in the developing year of the biennial ENSO mode. However, warm SST anomalies for the westward propagating near-annual mode occur about two months earlier than those for the biennial ENSO mode and are quickly replaced by cold SST anomalies, whereas warm SST anomalies for the biennial ENSO mode only experience moderate weakening. Anomalous zonal advection contributes to the generation and westward propagation of warm SST anomalies for both the westward propagating near-annual mode and the biennial ENSO mode. However, the role of mean upwelling is markedly different. The mean upwelling term contributes to the generation of warm SST anomalies for the biennial ENSO mode, but is mainly a damping term for the westward propagating near-annual mode. The development of warm SST anomalies for the stationary near-annual mode is partially due to anomalous zonal advection and upwelling, similar to the amplification of warm SST anomalies in the equatorial central Pacific for the biennial ENSO mode. The mean upwelling term is negative in the eastern equatorial Pacific for the stationary near-annual mode, which is opposite to the ENSO mode. The development of cold SST anomalies in the aftermath of warm SST anomalies for the westward propagating near-annual mode is coupled to large easterly wind anomalies, which occur between the warm and cold SST anomalies. The easterly anomalies contribute to the cold SST anomalies through anomalous zonal, meridional, and vertical advection and surface evaporation. The cold SST anomalies, in turn, enhance the easterly anomalies through a Rossby-wave-type response. The above processes are most effective during boreal spring when the mean near-surface-layer ocean temperature gradient is the largest. It is suggested that the westward propagating near-annual mode is related to air–sea interaction processes that are limited to the near-surface layers.

The Antarctic circumpolar wave (ACW) is a nominal 4-yr climate signal in the ocean–atmosphere system in the Southern Ocean, propagating eastward at an average speed of 6–8 cm s−1, composed of two waves taking approximately 8 years to circle the globe. The ACW is characterized by a persistent phase relationship between warm (cool) sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies and poleward (equatorward) meridional surface wind (MSW) anomalies. Recently, White and Chen demonstrated that SST anomalies in the Southern Ocean operate to induce anomalous vortex stretching in the lower troposphere that is balanced by the anomalous meridional advection of planetary vorticity, yielding MSW anomalies as observed. In the present study, the authors seek to understand how this atmospheric response to SST anomalies produces a positive feedback to the ocean (i.e., an anomalous SST tendency displaced eastward of SST anomalies) that both maintains the ACW against dissipation and accounts for its eastward propagation. To achieve this, we couple a global equilibrium climate model for the lower troposphere to a global heat budget model for the upper ocean. In the absence of coupling, the model Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) advects SST anomalies from initial conditions to the east at speeds slower than observed, taking 12–14 years to circle the globe with amplitudes that become insignificant after 6–8 years. In the presence of coupling, eastward speeds of the model ACC are matched by those due to coupling, together yielding a model ACW of a nominal 4-yr period composed of two waves that circle the globe in approximately 8 years, as observed. Feedback from atmosphere to ocean works through the anomalous zonal surface wind response to SST anomalies, yielding poleward Ekman flow anomalies in phase with warm SST anomalies. As such, maintenance of the model ACW is achieved through a balance between anomalous meridional Ekman heat advection and anomalous sensible-plus-latent heat loss to the atmosphere. This balance requires the alignment of covarying SST and MSW anomalies to be tilted into the southwest–northeast direction, which accounts for the spiral structure observed in global SST and sea level pressure anomaly patterns around the Southern Ocean. Eastward coupling speeds of the model ACW derive from a beta effect in coupling that displaces a portion of the anomalous meridional Ekman heat advection, and its corresponding anomalous SST tendency, to the east of SST anomalies. Therefore, the ACW is an example of self-organization within the global ocean–atmosphere system, depending upon the spherical shape of the rotating earth for its propagation and the mean meridional SST gradient for its maintenance, and producing a net poleward eddy heat flux in the upper ocean that tends to reduce this mean gradient.

The effects of the sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies in the tropical western Pacific on the atmospheric circulation anomalies over East Asia are simulated by the IAP-GCM with an observed and idealized distributions of the SST anomalies in the tropical western Pacific, respectively. Firstly, the atmospheric circulation anomalies during July and August, 1980 are simulated by three anomalous experiments including the global SST anomaly experiment, the tropical SST anomaly experiment and the extratropical SST anomaly experiment, using the observed SST anomalies in 1980. It is shown that the SST anomalies in the tropical ocean greatly influence the formation and maintenance of the blocking high over the northeastern Asia, and may play a more important role than the SST anomalies in the extratropical ocean in the influence on the atmospheric circulation anomalies.

Using a regional atmospheric model at 27-km resolution over the western North Pacific, we explore the sensitivity of the atmospheric response to sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies associated with meridional shifts of the Oyashio Extension (OE) front. Twenty different SST conditions are prescribed by adding SST anomalies in different years of 1979–2016 to a base SST state taken on a February 2013 day with a relatively neutral SST distribution. The model is integrated for a single storm duration and the entire February 2013, using identical initial and lateral boundary conditions. The differences between the responses to the 10 highest and lowest SST anomalies are highly significant and baroclinic. Simulations with the extreme positive and negative SST anomalies and their decomposition into spatial mean and residuals indicate that the large-scale and storm-track responses are determined by the spatial mean SST anomalies and are insensitive to the residual mesoscale SSTs. This holds at 10-km atmospheric resolution, where the responses remain similar and are dominated by the impact of the spatial mean SST anomalies, except for slight differences in the storm-track response and stronger vertical motions. We also investigate the influence of the central region (155°–164°E) of the OE that often has parallel or indistinct frontal zones in part linked to mesoscale eddy activity, as described by a frontal disturbance index (FDI). Differences between the response to the 10 highest and lowest FDI cases are small and lack statistical significance. Mesoscale SST variations thus had very little impact on the large-scale atmospheric response. Significance Statement Several modeling studies have suggested that mesoscale eddy variability in western boundary current regions has a strong influence on the storm track and the atmospheric circulation. However, these studies were generally based on simulations using spatially smoothed SSTs so that the mean SST gradients are weakened. Using a regional model without such spatial smoothing, we show that the atmospheric response to SST anomalies in the Oyashio Extension region is determined by their spatial mean and is largely insensitive to residual mesoscale SST variations. These results have to be mitigated against the smallness of the spatial domain simulated and the fact that we are only considering one single February month.

The idea is presented that satellite-derived night-time thermal maps can be used for the identification of regional sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies that may be related to geothermal processes. The analysis of night-time monthly Pathfinder V5 SST data indicated that November is the month for which the SST seasonal variability is minimized while the impact of the assumed SST anomaly is maximized. The methods used included SST domain slicing, frequency histogram interpretation and time series analysis (TSA using standardized principal component analysis, PCA) of the multi-temporal dataset while K-means cluster analysis identified a negative (cold) SST anomaly. The spatial pattern of SST variations includes a major SST anomaly south of 21° N and a stair step SST variation to the north. SST November data for an 8-year period were used to verify the spatial pattern of the thermal anomaly. Ocean dynamics and water circulation, as well as possible perennial dust storms from the Arabian Shield over the Red Sea and the degassing of underwater soft sediments, were considered as dominant factors controlling the SST anomalies observed. Because of their spatial and temporal structure, the SST variations are more likely to be related to geothermal-geotectonic activity in the Red Sea.

The development of sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies over the northeast Pacific and their impacts on lower-tropospheric air temperatures over the Pacific Northwest are examined. Northeast Pacific SST anomalies are influenced by the synoptic-scale flow, with high pressure and weak surface winds associated with developing warm SST anomalies, while large pressure gradients and strong surface winds result in SST declines. SST over the northeast Pacific correlates significantly with surface air temperatures over the Pacific Northwest, with correlations increasing when high-frequency variability is filtered out. The correlations between unfiltered time series of SST and surface air temperature are largest for a zero-day lag and are strongest near the coast, contrasting with weaker correlations over the Columbia basin east of the Cascade Mountains. SST correlations with minimum surface air temperature are largest during the warm season, and maximum temperature correlations are highest in March; both have low correlations during autumn. Model simulations of periods with warm and cold northeast Pacific SST anomalies possess lower-tropospheric air temperature warming or cooling over the coastal zone, with SST influence weakening east of the Cascade crest. Eastern Pacific SST anomalies influence sea level pressure and lower-tropospheric heights, with warm SST anomalies resulting in simulated lowered pressure near the surface and increased heights aloft. The relationship between northeast Pacific SST and surface air temperature over land evince complex feedbacks: SST temperature anomalies can be advected inland from the Pacific, the SST anomalies can influence the synoptic-scale flow that affects the SST anomalies, and the synoptic-scale anomalies that produce the SST anomalies can directly influence temperatures over land. Significance Statement Understanding the connection between northeast Pacific sea surface temperatures and low-level air temperatures over land is valuable for both subseasonal prediction and for examining the fidelity of model physics.

Predicting the rapid intensification (>15.0 m s−1 increase in 10 m wind speed over 24 h or less) of tropical cyclones (TC) remains a challenge in the broader context of numerical weather prediction largely due to their multiscale dynamics. Ocean observations show that the size and magnitude of sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies associated with cold wakes and ocean eddies play important roles in TC dynamics. In this study, a combination of spectral and structure function analyses is utilized to generate realistic realizations of multiscale anomalies characteristic of the SST conditions in which Hurricane Irma (2017) underwent rapid intensification (RI). We investigate the impact of the length scale of these SST anomalies and the role of translation speed on the variance in RI onset timing. Length-scale-induced convective asymmetries, in addition to the mean magnitude of SST anomalies beneath the storm eye, are shown to modulate the variance in RI onset timing. The size of the associated SST length scales relative to the storm size is critical to the magnitude of variance in RI onset timing, as smaller length scales are shown to lack the spatial extent required to induce preferential convective asymmetries. Storm translation speed is also shown to influence the variance in RI onset timing for larger-length-scale ensembles by altering the exposure time of the eye to these SST anomalies. We find that an interplay between SST-induced convective asymmetries, the magnitude of SST anomalies underneath the eye/eyewall, and storm translation speed play crucial roles in modulating the variance in RI onset timing. Significance Statement The characteristics of sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies in the tropical cyclone near-environment are inherently multiscale in nature as a result of interactions between various dynamical processes in the ocean. Assuming a uniform SST beneath storms in numerical simulations limits the predictability of how air–sea interaction affects the physics of rapid intensification (RI). In this study, the influence of realistic multiscale SST anomalies on RI onset timing is investigated. Our results suggest that the length scale of SST anomalies (in addition to its magnitude) modulate the distribution of convection, creating asymmetries around the RMW that can influence the predictability of RI onset. This effect is further modulated by storm translation speed, with the most prominent impact seen in slow-moving storms.

The period from April to June signifies the transition from spring to summer over the South China Sea (SCS). The present study documents two distinct processes for abnormal spring to summer transition over the SCS. One process is related to large-scale sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies in the tropical Indo-Pacific region. During spring of La Niña decaying years, negative SST anomalies in the equatorial central Pacific (ECP) and the southwestern tropical Indian Ocean (TIO) coexist with positive SST anomalies in the tropical western North Pacific. Negative ECP SST anomalies force an anomalous Walker circulation, negative southwestern TIO SST anomalies induce anomalous cross-equatorial flows from there, and positive tropical western North Pacific SST anomalies produce a Rossby wave–type response to the west. Together, they contribute to enhanced convection and an anomalous lower-level cyclone over the SCS, leading to an advanced transition to summer there. The other process is related to regional air–sea interactions around the Maritime Continent. Preceding positive ECP SST anomalies induce anomalous descent around the Maritime Continent, leading to SST increase in the SCS and southeast TIO. An enhanced convection region moves eastward over the south TIO during spring and reaches the area northwest of Australia in May. This enhances descent over the SCS via an anomalous cross-equatorial overturning circulation and contributes to further warming in the SCS. The SST warming in turn induces convection over the SCS, leading to an accelerated transition to summer. Analysis shows that the above two processes are equally important during 1979–2015.

The winter sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies in the Kuroshio and adjacent regions (KAR), which greatly influence the East Asian–North Pacific–North American climate, are closely related to El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). This SST relationship between the KAR and the equatorial eastern-central Pacific is widely assumed to be symmetric between El Niño and La Niña. Compared to previous studies indicating the significant and strong KAR warming during El Niño winters, this study indicates weakly negative KAR SST anomalies in the composite analysis for all La Niña events. Positive winter KAR SST anomalies unexpectedly appear in approximately half of La Niña events, which counteract negative SST anomalies in the rest of La Niña events. Further analysis suggests that the impact of La Niña on KAR SST anomalies is modulated by the East Asian winter monsoon (EAWM) during early winter. The weaker-than-normal EAWM offsets the anomalous northeasterly winds in the KAR induced by La Niña and then reinforces the KAR warming through warm oceanic advection. As for strong EAWM, it enhances the northeasterly winds to the west of an anomalous Philippine Sea cyclone associated with La Niña, leading to KAR cooling with more latent heat flux loss from the ocean and anomalous cold oceanic advection. Additionally, when the EAWM is independent of ENSO and is associated with the western Pacific pattern, it also can exhibit a pronounced influence on the KAR SST anomalies via the major processes of surface latent flux and horizontal heat advection in the ocean, accompanied by a change in Kuroshio transport. Significance Statement The interannual variability of SST from Philippine Sea to the Kuroshio and adjacent regions is considered an important forecast factor of the eastern China climate. Previous studies have reported a dipole SST pattern with Philippine Sea cooling and warming in the Kuroshio and adjacent regions during El Niño winter is dominant, and simply regarded that the effect of La Niña on western North Pacific SST anomalies was a mirror image of that of El Niño events. Here, we have found two distinctive SST patterns in the western North Pacific during La Niña winter. One type is the dipole SST pattern, characterized by Philippine Sea warming and by cooling in the Kuroshio and adjacent regions. The other type is the monopole SST pattern with uniform warming expanding from the Philippine Sea to the Kuroshio and adjacent regions. The dipole (monopole) SST pattern in western North Pacific is modulated by La Niña and a strong (weak) EAWM. Analysis shows that the above two SST patterns during La Niña winter are equally important during 1950–2021. This study has identified the influence of the EAWM independent of ENSO on the SST anomalies in the Kuroshio and adjacent regions.

The mechanisms that contribute to the generation and damping of large‐scale mid‐latitude sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies are discussed. The SST anomalies reflect primarily the response of the upper ocean to the changes in air‐sea fluxes that are associated with daily weather fluctuations. Heat flux forcing is dominant in the lower middle latitudes, while wind‐driven entrainment may be most effective in the high latitudes; advection by anomalous Ekman current is generally less important, and Ekman pumping is negligible. The SST anomalies decay in part because of entrainment effects associated with mixed‐layer deepening and oceanic mixing and in part because of heat exchanges with the atmosphere. The three approaches commonly used to model the evolution of SST anomalies are reviewed: case studies based on monthly or seasonal anomaly maps of the large‐scale SST and atmospheric anomalies, numerical simulations with one‐dimensional mixed‐layer models, and stochastic forcing models. We stress the similarities in the different approaches and discuss their main advantages and limitations. The response of the atmosphere to mid‐latitude SST anomalies is considered. First, we discuss the poorly known relationship between SST anomalies and diabatic heating. Using a crude assumption for the air‐sea coupling, we consider a two‐layer quasi‐geostrophic channel model and discuss the stationary wave response to SST anomaly forcing and the resulting air‐sea feedback. It is found that the back interaction of the SST anomalies onto the atmosphere causes a weak SST anomaly damping at large scales and a strong one at small scales; the air‐sea coupling should also act as an eastward propagator for the SST anomalies. The response of more realistic linear wave models to prescribed diabatic heating is then reviewed, and it is suggested that realistic mid‐latitude SST anomalies have a weak influence on the atmospheric circulation, corresponding to changes in the geopotential height of 10–30 m at most. This order of magnitude is consistent with the results of general circulation model experiments and with the limited climate predictability associated with mid‐latitude SST anomalies.

While sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies in the eastern equatorial Pacific are dominated by the thermocline feedback, in the central equatorial Pacific local wind effects, such as zonal advection, are important as well. El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) simulations with a linear model improve markedly if these effects are included as a local wind stress feedback on SST. An atmosphere model that reacts both to eastern and central Pacific SST anomalies is needed for producing a realistic ENSO cycle. First, simulations are studied of a linear 1.5-layer reduced-gravity ocean model and a linear SST anomaly equation, forced by observed monthly wind stress. If only the thermocline feedback is present in the SST equation, SST can be simulated well in the eastern Pacific, but, contrary to observations, central Pacific SST is out of phase with the eastern Pacific. If a wind stress feedback is added in the SST equation, as a term proportional to the zonal wind stress, correlations between observed and simulated SST are above 0.8 in both the central and eastern Pacific, and the correlation between the Niño-3 (5°S–5°N, 90°–150°W) and Niño-4 (5°S–5°N, 150°W–160°E) indexes is close to the observed value of 0.75. Next, a statistical atmosphere is added to the ocean module that is based on a regression of observed wind stress to the observed Niño-3 and Niño-4 indexes. The coupled system is driven by noise that is inferred from the residues of the fit and has a red component. The observed Niño-3–Niño-4 index correlation can be reproduced only with a wind stress feedback in the central Pacific. Also, the level of SST variability rises and the ENSO period increases to more realistic values. The interplay between the local wind stress and the thermocline feedbacks, therefore, is an important factor in the structure of ENSO in the coupled linear model. In the eastern Pacific, the thermocline feedback dominates SST anomalies; in the central Pacific, the local wind stress feedback. Due to the local wind stress feedback, the ENSO wind stress response excites SST anomalies in the central Pacific, extending the ENSO SST anomaly pattern well into the central Pacific. In turn, these central Pacific SST anomalies give rise to wind stress anomalies that are situated more westward than the response to eastern Pacific SST anomalies. As a result, the ENSO amplitude is enhanced and the ENSO period increased. Also, central Pacific SST anomalies are not completely determined by eastern Pacific SST anomalies and they persist longer.

Prediction of summer precipitation in north China (NCP) has long been a challenge partly because its low correlation with previous sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies (SSTA) limits the application of SST in NCP prediction. This study aims to extract optimal predictors of NCP from the SST field using an objective method—empirically optimal screening (EOS). It finds that the optimal precursory signal of NCP lies in the change of SSTA from winter to spring rather than the SSTA itself. This study identifies two optimal precursory signs predicting a positive (negative) NCP anomaly: the anomalous SST cooling (warming) from winter to spring in the coastal area of Somalia and Peru. Interestingly, these two presummer conditions have considerable independence, but they lead to a similar summer development of La Niña (El Niño). In summer, the tropical precipitation anomaly pattern associated with La Niña (El Niño) development excites a meridional wave train over the western Pacific and the circumglobal teleconnection in the Northern Hemisphere. Both of the anomalous wave trains show abnormal high (low) pressure over northeast Asia, which induces the south (north) wind anomalies over north China and produces abundant (deficient) precipitation there. These results highlight the importance of the SST evolution from winter to spring, break through the limitation of SST application in NCP prediction, and thus bring a prospect of improving NCP forecast skills. Significance Statement Sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies are most used as predictors in climate prediction. However, the forecast of summer precipitation in north China is limited by its low correlation with prior SST anomalies. In this paper, we find that the optimal precursory signal of north China precipitation (NCP) is not the SST anomaly itself, but the changes of SST anomalies from winter to spring in the coastal area of Somalia and Peru. These two precursory signals are almost independent yet indicate similar summer situations leading to NCP anomaly. These results highlight the importance of the dynamic evolution of sea surface temperature in improving the forecast skill of NCP.

The interannual variability in the southwest U.S. monsoon and its relationship to sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies is investigated via experiments conducted with the University of California, Los Angeles, atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM). When the model is run without interannual variations in SSTs at the lower boundary, the simulation of the climatological mean monsoon is quite similar to the observed. In addition, the interannual precipitation variance and wet minus dry monsoon composite differences in the precipitation and monsoon circulation are largely realistic. When interannual variations in SSTs are introduced, the simulated interannual precipitation variance over the southwest U.S. monsoon region does not increase. Nor do SSTs seem to be important in selecting for wet or dry monsoons in this simulation, as there is little correspondence between observed wet and dry monsoon years and simulated wet and dry years. These results were confirmed through a 20-member ensemble of shorter seasonal simulations forced by an SST anomaly field corresponding to that observed for a wet minus dry southwest U.S. monsoon composite. When the AGCM is coupled to a mixed-layer ocean model, the pattern of SST anomalies generated in association with wet and dry monsoons is remarkably similar to that observed: there is a large area of positive SST anomalies in the subtropical eastern Pacific Ocean and weaker negative anomalies in the midlatitude North Pacific and Gulf of Mexico. It is demonstrated that the SST anomalies in the Pacific Ocean are forced by anomalies in the net surface solar radiative flux from the atmosphere associated with variations in planetary boundary layer stratus clouds; these variations are enhanced by a positive feedback between SST and stratus cloud variations. The anomalies in the Gulf of Mexico are associated with anomalous latent heat fluxes there. It is concluded that internal atmospheric variations are capable of 1) producing interannual variations in the southwest U.S. monsoon that are comparable to those observed, and 2) thermodynamically forcing the SST anomalies in the adjacent Pacific Ocean and Gulf of Mexico that are observed to accompany these variations. The implications of these results for seasonal forecasting are rather pessimistic since variations associated with internal atmospheric processes cannot be predicted on seasonal timescales.

The present study shows that the intensity of the springtime Atlantic storm track (AST) is affected by sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies in the tropical northern Atlantic (TNA) region on an interannual time scale, and the AST intensity variation in turn induces the underlying SST anomalies in the following months using the reanalysis data. Moreover, the interannual relationship is modulated by the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) on a decadal time scale. During the negative phase of the AMO, AST activity weakens when warm SST anomalies appear in the TNA region, while warm TNA SST anomalies during the positive phase of the AMO correspond to a weakening of AST activity in the northeast region of the climatological AST. Anomalous westerly winds, Eady growth rate (EGR), and baroclinic energy conversion (BCEC) associated with the TNA SST anomalies can be found upstream of the AST anomalies during both AMO phases. On the other hand, the AST intensity variation is closely related to the underlying SST in the following months, especially in the next month. During the positive phase of the AMO, both the upward surface net heat flux (Q net) and westerly wind anomalies related to the AST are more marked than those during the negative phase of the AMO. This results in significant negative and westward-extending SST anomalies over the extratropical North Atlantic. This study suggests that the ocean–atmosphere interaction processes associated with the springtime AST variability are modulated by the AMO.

The decadal variability of sea surface temperature (SST) and sea level pressure (SLP) anomalies, as well as the response of global land vegetation and marine fisheries, are investigated for three periods: 1982–1988, 1989–1998, and 1999–2008, separated by the 1988–89 and 1998–99 regime shifts. The goal is to develop a global-scale ecosystem concept to support an improved understanding of the corresponding changes in atmospheric, oceanic, and biological responses. The analysis is based on global SST, SLP, precipitable water content (PWC), land vegetation condition index (VCI), and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization’s (FAO) fish capture data. The results show that SST and SLP displayed significant decadal variability. The decadal variability of sea surface temperature anomalies (SSTA) associated with sea level pressure anomalies (SLPA) has an influence on the land vegetation moisture condition (VCI). Positive SSTA tends to be associated with negative SLPA, and vice versa, in the corresponding ocean areas and most land areas. Consequently, clearly opposing distributions of SSTA and SLPA are observed in the periods 1982–1988 and 1999–2008. With positive SSTA and negative SLPA, VCI tends to increase in value representing more favourable vegetation conditions. Negative SSTA and positive SLPA is generally unfavourable for global vegetation development. The decadal variability of SSTA is closely related to the number of fish species (NFS) doing better or worse based on normalized fish landing data. However, the fishery responses show different yet consistent trends in the three ocean basins. When SSTA is negative, it appears more beneficial for the number of fish species with improved landings in the Atlantic Ocean. However, positive SSTA leads to more fish species with improved landings in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.