Cattle traction in the Xiongnu empire: Zooarchaeological evidence from the Mongolian steppe

The Huns appeared in Europe in the 370s, establishing an Empire that reshaped West Eurasian history. Yet until today their origins remain a matter of extensive debate. Traditional theories link them to the Xiongnu, the founders of the first nomadic empire of the Mongolian steppe. The Xiongnu empire dissolved, however, ~300 y before the Huns appeared in Europe, and there is little archaeological and historical evidence of Huns in the steppe during this time gap. Furthermore, despite the rich 5th to 6th centuries current era (CE) archaeological record of the Carpathian Basin, the cultural elements of connections with the steppe are limited to few findings and even fewer solitary eastern-type burials. In this study, we coanalyze archaeological evidence with 35 newly sequenced and published genomic data for a total of 370 individuals-from 5th to 6th century CE contexts in the Carpathian Basin including 10 Hun-period eastern-type burials, 2nd to 5th century sites across Central Asia and 2nd c. before current era (BCE) to 1st c. CE Xiongnu period sites across the Mongolian steppe. We find no evidence for the presence of a large eastern/steppe descent community among the Hun- and post-Hun-period Carpathian Basin population. We also observe a high genetic diversity among the eastern-type burials that recapitulates the variability observed across the Eurasian Steppe. This suggests a mixed origin of the incoming steppe conquerors. Nevertheless, long-shared genomic tracts provide compelling evidence of genetic lineages directly connecting some individuals of the highest Xiongnu-period elite with 5th to 6th century CE Carpathian Basin individuals, showing that some European Huns descended from them.

This article presents the oldest iron smelting furnaces of the Xiongnu Empire period in central Mongolia and argues that a significant smelting center existed at the site of Baga Nariĭn Am. Five iron smelting furnaces and four smelting installations were excavated, with a total 26 furnaces further identified through SQUID magnetometry. In combination with a review of data on iron production in contemporary Mongolia, the Transbaikal region, Tuva, the Minusinsk Basin and the Altai, we argue that this new data alters existing narratives of the adoption of iron in eastern Eurasia. While iron smelting as such was adopted from the Minusinsk Basin, where the oldest iron smelting furnaces in eastern Eurasia are currently found, we suggest that the driving force behind the massive boom in iron metallurgy from the second century BCE onward was the Xiongnu Empire. During the course of the Xiongnu Empire, the development of more efficient iron technology is evident, with the steppe empire also inventing a new furnace type. These findings are significant for understanding the dynamics of iron industries in the eastern Eurasian Steppe and paves the way for necessary work on metallurgical installations in the Minusinsk Basin and Tuva.

Since the late 3rd century B.C., the Northern steppes, i.e. the steppe zonesituated north of China, south of the Baikal region and between the rangesof the Altai and Hingan mountains, were dominated by a succession of nomadic peoples. The first people that established a highly centralized polity,daresay an empire, on the steppes were the Xiongnu. The demise of theirempire was brought about by a constellation of a number of factors; internaldivision, Chinese military expeditions, loss of strategically crucial territoriesand defections of allies as a result. Towards the end of the 1st century A.D.,one of their former allies, the Xianbei took over the old Xiongnu territories,but failed to establish a centralized rule on the steppes. The Xianbei ruler,who united all the steppe tribes under his control and created an ephemeraltribal alliance that somewhat resembled the Xiongnu Empire, appeared aslate as the mid-2nd century, and even this unity came to an end less than thirtyyears later.

The Xiongnu established the first nomadic imperial power, controlling the Eastern Eurasian steppe from ca. 200 BCE to 100 CE. Recent archaeogenetic studies identified extreme levels of genetic diversity across the empire, corroborating historical records of the Xiongnu Empire being multiethnic. However, it has remained unknown how this diversity was structured at the local community level or by sociopolitical status. To address this, we investigated aristocratic and local elite cemeteries at the western frontier of the empire. Analyzing genome-wide data from 18 individuals, we show that genetic diversity within these communities was comparable to the empire as a whole, and that high diversity was also observed within extended families. Genetic heterogeneity was highest among the lowest-status individuals, implying diverse origins, while higher-status individuals harbored less genetic diversity, suggesting that elite status and power was concentrated within specific subsets of the broader Xiongnu population.

The Xiongnu(=Hunnu) history is one of the most interesting pages of the history of the Eurasia steppe`s people in the ancient epoch. On the boundary between III and II centuries BC. The Xiongnu have established the first steppe empire which has consolidated many peoples of the Inner Asia. Over a period of 250 years, The first data on the monuments of the northern Xiongnu refer to the end of XIX century which was carried out by Yu.D.Talko-Gryntsevich in Kiakhta region. Since then, more than one hundreds years researchers from various nations devote themselves in enlightening Xiongnu archaeology. In spite of increased interests, one of most difficulties for Xiongnu researchers is limited informations until 1990 y. Russian-Mongolian expedition in Mongol and Zabaikalya on Northern Xiongnu could not be shared with another nations, otherwise. Chinese researches mainly focused on Southern Xiongnu and its assimilation on Chinese Empire. This situation dramatically change in recent 20 years. Archaeological team from more than 10 nations conduct archaeological expeditions in Mongol Republic, and publish tremendous amounts of papers, reports and symposiums. The growing number of papers devoted to the Xiongnu, in the national schools of Russia, Mongolia and China, led to the emergence of joint international projects. In the framework of international archaeological expeditions have been studied are large mounds of the Xiongnu as the Gol Mod, Noin Uul, Tsaram, Durlig Nars. Their study also include international symposia, multi-disciplinary collaborative research, etc., Collaborative international research in recent years have led to global change related to the Xiongnu. So, in this study authours review main topics of xiongnu studies in various epochs. Authours divide xiongnu studies into 3 periods- beginnings, until 1990 y. and contemporary researches(21th c.). With consideration of increased studies in last 10 years, authors devote more contemporary studies into 4 topics(way of livings, hierarchy and local types, social structure, and ethnic formation). Besides grown interests on several topics, we feel that most of researches concentrate on modern Mongol. Despite of the importance of modern Mongol as main research field, we could not ignore that the boundaries and influence of xiongnu empire reached Inner Asia, Southern Siberia, Northern China and Far East. So, authors hope that this reviewing article guide perspectives of wide-viewed xiongnu studies.

This paper tries to diagnose the Qing and Han empires effects on the rise of the nomadic empire of Xiongnu in 200 BCE.Qing empire was founded in 221 BCE and Han empire was founded in 202 BCE. In the same period, the nomads in northern steppe areas united by Maodun through several military actions and began a direct invasion toward Han Empire after a short time when Qing empire invaded Xiongnu. Han empire took actions combined with military and policy including direct counter in the period of the emperor of Han Wu led by Wei Qing and Huo Qubing and political actions which was called Heqin using marriage between Chanyu and Han court. These actions brought Chinese culture including Chinese music and Chinese foods to nomadic tribes in Eurasia. This Conversation between cultures greatly influenced the formation of nomadic policy structure, even directly led to a separation in Xiongnu because of the changes in living habits in the southern areas of Xiongnu. A series actions taken by Han and Qing court tried to suppress the rise of nomadic empire finally stimulated the rise of the first nomadic empire around 200 BCE. The process of the formation of Xiongnu empire were stimulated by Qing and Han empire.

Season of death of domestic horses deposited in a ritual complex from Bronze Age Mongolia: Insights from oxygen isotope time-series in tooth enamel