Abstract
The objective of this study was to investigate the association between cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and performance in multiple domains of executive functions in school–aged adolescents. A sample of 132 adolescents (43% girls) aged 11–16 years were included in this cross–sectional study. Each participant completed a progressive aerobic cardiovascular endurance running (PACER) test, computerized cognitive tasks (Attentional Network, Berg’s Card Sorting, Go/No–Go oddball, Sternberg’s Working Memory, and Tower of London) and questionnaire for daytime sleepiness, as well as other factors that might influence cognitive performance (age, sex, school year, pubertal stage, and body mass index – BMI). Generalized linear model was used to calculate the coefficient estimates (β) and its 95% confidence interval (CI) for the cognitive tasks using PACER laps as a predictor, controlling for potential confounding variables. There was a negatively association of PACER laps with planning (β = –17.1, 95% CI –31.9, –2.3) and solution (β = –44.6, 95% CI –75.1, –14.2) time in performing the Tower of London task, as well as with perseverative errors in performing Berg’s task (β = –0.073, 95% CI –0.133, –0.013). Moderating effect of sex was found for the association of PACER laps with completed categories and perseverative errors in Berg’s task (p < 0.05). Mediating effect of BMI was found for the association between PACER laps and NoGo task, revealing a full mediator accounted for 81% of the total effect mediated (standardized indirect effect, –0.069, 95% CI –0.140, –0.020; standardized direct effect, 0.011, 95% CI –0.149, 0.165). No association was found for Attentional or Sternberg’s tasks. The findings suggest that school–aged adolescents with higher CRF level showed better planning and problem–solving abilities and cognitive flexibility. Additionally, the positive association of CRF with cognitive flexibility was sex–moderated and with inhibitory control was BMI–mediated.
Highlights
Executive functions (EFs) refer to a set of cognitive processes responsible for maintaining behavior, emotion and thoughts (Diamond, 2013), developing from early childhood and through adolescence to adulthood (Romine and Reynolds, 2005)
– Excess moves, s – Planning time, s – Solution time, s – Completed categories – Perseverative errors – Accuracy,% correct – Reaction time, s – Accuracy,% correct – Reaction time, ms – Throughput – Accuracy,% correct – Reaction time, ms – Alerting, ms – Orienting, ms – Conflict, ms Executive functions domains Planning and problem–solving abilities Cognitive flexibility Inhibitory control Working memory Sustained attention and girls for the remaining cognitive tasks, but we found a trend for significance in the perseverative errors in Berg’s Card Sorting task (BCST) and alerting in Attentional Network task (ANT)
After adjusting for covariates, we found that progressive aerobic cardiovascular endurance running (PACER) laps were negatively related to planning and solution time in TOL and perseverative errors in BCST (p < 0.05)
Summary
Executive functions (EFs) refer to a set of cognitive processes responsible for maintaining behavior, emotion and thoughts (Diamond, 2013), developing from early childhood and through adolescence to adulthood (Romine and Reynolds, 2005) These functions can be categorized as the core EFs, which include inhibitory control (ability to control attention, behavior, thoughts, and/or emotions focusing on the goal and suppressing attention to other stimuli), working memory (retaining information in the mind and manipulating it), and cognitive flexibility (ability to change perspectives; i.e., to inhibit previous perspectives and activate into working memory a different perspective), and as higher–level EFs, which include planning and problem–solving abilities (Diamond, 2013). In addition to emotional and behavioral factors (Bidzan-Bluma and Lipowska, 2018), school activities demand an efficient EF performance as they are a model of an environment that requests autonomy and control of attentional functions, as well as organizing and planning (Cypel, 2006)
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