Can Virtual Reality Nature Serve as a Substitute for Real Nature? A Comparison of Visual Attention, Blood Pressure, and Emotional Responses

Nature is nowadays considered the most restorative environment. A brief exposure to a (real or virtual) nature environment help people to restore cognitive and affective resources. However, (1) the precise mechanism through nature support restorative process is undervalued in literature; (2) testing the possibility that a virtual reality (VR) device can evoke similar outcomes as real nature, the usability of such devices become an important factor to consider in the research. In this study we hypothesize a moderation effect of usability of device on the relationship between perceived restorative potential (PRP) of the environment and restorative outcomes (emotional and cognitive). 114 Italian students (83% female, mean (ds) age = 22.38 (6.50)) were immersed into a virtual nature environment using a virtual reality head-set (Oculus Rift). Before and after exposure, mood (positive and negative emotions) and attentive performance were evaluated. After exposure participants were also asked to report PRP and usability of VR device experienced. Result showed that the PRP predict emotional well-being, and that this relationship is moderated by usability of VR device. Only participants that perceived a high usability report different levels of emotions depending on how much they perceived the environment restorative. Conversely, people how reported difficulties in wearing headset VR or to adapt to the environment (i.e., low level of usability) did not show difference in emotional well-being depending on PRP.

BackgroundWith the global trend of urbanization, there are increasing reports of a possible association between decreased exposure to nature and increased occurrence of mental disorders. New 360° virtual reality (VR) technology using smartphones and portable VR glasses can overcome spatial and temporal limitations to help people deal with mental fatigue in everyday life.ObjectiveOn the basis of attention restoration theory (ART), this study aimed to investigate whether the amplitude of the mismatch negativity (MMN)/P3a complex could act as an event-related potential (ERP) biomarker of involuntary attention restoration during exposure to 360° virtual nature in healthy young adults with different levels of restorative VR experience.MethodsA total of 40 healthy adults completed prequestionnaires on demographics and simulator sickness and postquestionnaires on simulator sickness and perceived restorativeness before and after exposure to virtual nature, respectively. During the VR exposure, brain activity was measured by electroencephalography as participants were asked to conduct a 2-tone passive auditory oddball task.ResultsThe amplitude and latency of the MMN/P3a complex were compared between individuals reporting a highly restorative experience and those reporting a less restorative experience. Although viewing a virtual nature environment, the high restorative group (N=19) exhibited significantly reduced P3a amplitudes compared with the low restorative group (N=20; t38=2.57; P=.02; d=0.59). Particularly, a moderate but significant negative correlation was found between the self-reported restorativeness scores and the P3a amplitudes at the fronto-central region (r=−.38; P=.02). However, the latency of the MMN/P3a complex did not significantly differ between the 2 groups (auditory mismatch negativity: t38=−1.47; P=.15 and P3a: t38=−0.31; P=.76).ConclusionsConsidering individuals’ restorative experience, the amplitude of the fronto-central MMN/P3a complex can potentially be employed as a distinct ERP component of interest in involuntary attention restoration during virtual nature experience in healthy young adults. The findings for the 360° virtual nature experience seem to be consistent with those of previous ERP studies on the effects of meditation practice. This study extends the findings of previous ART and ERP studies of real-world meditation, restoration, and mental fatigue management into the virtual world created by mobile phone–based VR glasses and 360° video content.

Natural environments are associated with improved cognitive functioning and psychological well-being, potentially through attentional restoration and stress reduction. Virtual reality (VR) offers an accessible way to simulate natural settings; however, it remains unclear whether VR nature engages the brain and cognition in the same way as real nature, particularly in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), who show atypical neural oscillations and heightened sensitivity to environmental demands. This protocol describes a randomized experimental study designed to compare the effects of a single exposure to real vs virtual nature on cognition, well-being, and brain activity in adults with and without ADHD and to examine how neurocognitive profiles and ADHD symptom dimensions shape these responses over time. A total of 80 adults (40 with a confirmed ADHD diagnosis and 40 neurotypical controls) will be recruited and randomly assigned to either a real nature condition or an immersive VR-simulated nature condition. After a baseline assessment, participants will complete a 20-minute seated exposure in the assigned condition while 32-channel mobile electroencephalography (EEG) is recorded. Immediately post exposure, they will complete gamified cognitive tasks assessing cognitive flexibility and metacognition, self-report measures of mood, perceived restoration, simulator sickness, and nature connectedness. ADHD symptomatology and functional impact will be assessed with standardized scales at preexposure and postexposure and at the final follow-up. Ecological momentary assessment of emotional well-being, weekly self-reports of real-world nature and VR exposure, and repeated nature connectedness ratings will be collected via a mobile app over an 8-week follow-up period to characterize the decay or maintenance of effects. EEG analyses will focus on alpha-band markers of cognitive restoration, complemented by dimensional modeling of ADHD symptoms in linear mixed-effects models. The study has been preregistered on the Open Science Framework and will be prospectively registered with the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR) before enrollment of the first participant. Ethical approval has been received from the Research Ethics Committee at Sligo University Hospital. At the time of manuscript submission, participant recruitment had not yet begun and no outcome data were available. The project received funding in May 2025. Participant recruitment is expected to begin in January 2026, followed by data collection in April 2026 to ensure suitable outdoor conditions. Data analysis will follow data collection, and study findings are expected to be published in May 2028. This study will test whether VR nature can reproduce key cognitive and neural benefits of real-world nature exposure and whether these effects differ between adults with ADHD and neurotypical adults. By integrating EEG, cognitive performance, symptom dimensions, and longitudinal self-report data, the findings are expected to clarify when VR nature may serve as a useful, scalable complement to real nature-based approaches for supporting attention and psychological well-being. PRR1-10.2196/82970.

The nuclear power plant (NPP) mainly serve the purpose to provide low-cost and stable electricity for the people, but this purpose must be dependent upon the premise of "safety first." The reason for this is that the occurrence of nuclear power plant accidents could cause catastrophic damage to the people, property, society, and the environment. Therefore, training in superior and high reliability system is very important in accident prevention. In recent years, the Virtual Reality (VR) technology advances very fast as well as the technology for e-learning environment. VR systems have been applied for education, safety training of NPP and flying simulators. In particular, VR is an interactive and reactive technology; it allows users to interact and navigate with objects in the virtual environment. Development of VR and simulation techniques contributes to an accurate and immersive training environment for NPP operators. Main Control Room (MCR) training simulator based on VR is a more cost effective and efficient alternative to traditional simulator based training methods. The VR simulation for MCR training is a complex task. Since VR not only reinforces the visual presentation of the training materials but also provides ways to interact with the training system, it becomes more flexible and possibly more powerful in the training system. In the VR training system, the MCR operators may use just one display to view the wide range of the real world displays. The field of view (FOV) will be different from the real MCR environment in which many displays exist for the operators to view. Thus operator's immersion and visual attention will be reduced. This is the problem of MCR virtual training compared with the traditional simulator based training systems. Therefore, improving the operator's visual attention and the detection of signals in VR training system is a very important issue. This investigation intends to contribute in assessing benefits of visual attention and the detection of signals for VR simulation in MCR training. This study compares the VR representation methods (Desktop VR and Projector VR) performance on visual attention and detection of signals. We develop a questionnaire for the evaluation of the immersion effect of the virtual display of MCR. The results indicated that different VR representation methods significantly affected the participants' visual attention and detection of signals.

Background: This investigation examines the phenomenological dimensions of young adults' engagement with virtual natural environments for psychological stress amelioration through rigorous thematic analysis. Contemporary epidemiological data reveal a concerning prevalence of stress among young adults aged 18 to 29 years, with approximately 30% reporting moderate to severe manifestations. Despite virtual reality (VR)'s emergence as a promising modality for mental well-being interventions, a significant lacuna exists regarding the qualitative understanding of these immersive experiences. Methods: Through semi-structured interviews with 35 young adults following a four-week VR nature intervention, we constructed a conceptual framework comprising five interconnected strata: intervention, experience, process, context, and outcome. Results: Our analysis illuminated intricate bidirectional relationships among sensory elements, emotional responses, immersion depth, interactive affordances, post-session effects, psychological development, implementation challenges, individual variability, and comparative efficacy. The findings demonstrate congruence with both Attention Restoration Theory and Stress Recovery Theory while necessitating consideration of technology-specific mediators. Notably, the identified "stress barrier" phenomenon temporarily inhibited intrusive cognitions, suggesting promising therapeutic mechanisms. Pronounced heterogeneity in environmental preferences and psychophysiological responsiveness underscores the imperative for personalized implementation strategies. Conclusions: These insights provide substantive guidance for VR nature applications across therapeutic, occupational, and educational domains, potentially augmenting our repertoire for addressing stress-related sequelae in contemporary society.

Natural environments have been widely recognized for their calming effects on individuals. However, access to such restorative environments can be limited by various circumstances. In these cases, Virtual Reality can be beneficial, as recent studies have shown that immersion in virtual natural environments has effects comparable to those of real nature. Various characteristics of natural environments can potentially influence the benefits they provide to humans. Additionally, the design of VR interventions can impact the experience and emotional response. This review aims to survey the current state of knowledge on the impact of virtual natural environments on emotion elicitation, addressing the types of interventions used in past studies, the variety of natural environments employed, and their differential impacts on emotional valence and arousal. This analysis shows how longer sessions, especially those involving interactive elements such as hand gestures, proved to be the most effective in enhancing emotional and physiological benefits. Among the various types of natural environments used, green spaces, particularly virtual forests, were the most frequently studied and showed consistent effectiveness in both reducing arousal and eliciting positive emotions. These findings can inform the development of new VR interventions designed to foster restoration and enhance positive emotional responses.

Interaction with nature in virtual reality has been shown to induce similar restorative benefits as interaction with real-life nature. Drawing from Attention restoration theory, restorative benefits from being in virtual nature are likely to be improved through greater active engagement techniques with specific virtual natural features. Gamification is the process of adding game design elements in non-game scenarios in order to improve engagement and motivation. In the present pilot study, six participants completed either a gamified interaction with virtual nature, one where game design elements had been added in order to improve engagement with specific virtual nature features and thus possibly further facilitating sustained attention and self-reported restoration, having them pick plants and gain rewards such as a higher level in return, or a non-gamified task, one where they explored the virtual nature environment and looked at plants at their own pace without any game design elements. Gamified interaction improved sustained attention restoration more than non-gamified interaction. Additionally, gamified interaction was also shown to have reduced negative effect in self-reported restoration more than non-gamified interaction. While there are still several limitations, gamified interaction with virtual nature seems to offer vast potential as an engagement technique in improving sustained attention and self-reported restoration.

Contact with nature is beneficial for mental health, including anxiety and stress. Exposure to virtual nature also has similar restorative traits with real nature. However, previous studies on the restorative environment mostly focus on ordinary people while caring less about patients with depressive disorders. Thus, the restorative impacts of virtual nature on patients with depression warrant examination. This research aims to study the restorative effects of virtual reality (VR) landscape type, viewing distance, and permeability on anxiety, depression, and stress in patients with depression. Study A revealed that the perceived restorative level of landscape type varies greatly: grassland > forest > water > undergrowth > urban square. Additionally, natural environments with higher openness, more green elements, more blue sky, and more sunshine exposure had higher restorative levels on perceived depression, anxiety, and stress relief. Study B found that the grassland landscape with a higher viewing distance and a medium vegetation edge permeability provides more restorative impacts for patients with depression.

This book chapter discusses a number of concepts and theories closely identified with human health and natural environments. The chapter is divided into five sections: (i) genetic theories; (ii) other evolutionary grounded theories; (iii) psychological theories; (iv) restoration and restorative environments; and (v) intentionally designed experiences (IDEs). Genetic theories include naturalistic intelligence, the biophilia hypothesis, and indigenous consciousness. In the psychological theories section, identity and the natural environment, psychologically deep and extraordinary experiences, flow, the peak experience, and transcendent experiences are examined. The restoration and restorative environments section looks at psycho-evolutionary theory (PET) and attention restoration theory (ART). The chapter concludes with a discussion regarding ways to strengthen the connection between natural environments and health. The concept of IDEs is introduced, which attempts to combine some of the extant theories such as PET with how specifically designed programs can increase the impact that natural environments can have on health-related issues such as stress or anxiety.

The nose cooperates with the eyes: The independent and interactive effects of vision and olfaction on the perceived restorativeness of a Metasequoia walkway

BackgroundResearch on the restorative environment has long focused on the natural environment, while the research on the humanistic social environment is still in its infancy. In particular, there has been no special research on the restoration of festival environments.MethodsBased on attention restoration theory (ART), Rites of Passage, and social time, a theoretical model of the restorativeness of folk festival environments was established. Through an empirical study of the Qinhuai Lantern Festival Event, the model was tested by structural equation modeling.ResultsOverall, there were two paths, direct and indirect, for the positive prediction of restoration by being away and compatibility; fascination direct positive predict restoration, and extent could indirectly positive predict restoration through liminal experience; time of visiting played a moderating role in the positive prediction of liminal experience by being away; the direct positive prediction of restoration by extent was significant and moderating during the Lantern Festival and the lantern fair period.ConclusionThe folk festival environment is restorative. Folk festival environment restoration has the internal mechanism of “environment restoration feature perception → liminal experience → restoration”. The restoration of the folk festival environment is moderated by social time.SignificanceThis is the first time that attention restoration theory (ART) has been applied to the study of a “hard fascination” humanistic social environment, thus yielding empirical evidence for the development of this theory. The results suggest management requirements for the improvement of the indication system of festival tourism destinations and the promotion of rest and leisure facilities, and management tips for the timing decision of festival activities against the background of the COVID-19 epidemic.

Natural environment experiences in virtual reality (VR) can be a feasible option for people unable to connect with real nature. Existing research mostly focuses on health and emotional advantages of the "virtual nature" therapy, but studies of its neuropsychological effects related to visual perception are rare. In our experiment, 20 subjects watched nature-related video content in VR headsets (3D condition) and on a computer screen (2D condition). In addition to the gender factor, we considered the individual Environmental Identity Index (EID) and collected the self-assessment of the emotional state per the components of Valence, Arousal, and Dominance in each experimental condition. Besides the psychometric data, we also registered brainwave activity (EEG) and analyzed it with the 7 frequency bands. For EID, which was considerably higher in women, we found significant positive correlation with Valence (i.e., beneficial effect of the natural stimuli on the psycho-emotional status). At the same time, the analysis of the EEG data suggests a considerable impact of the VR immersion itself, with higher relaxation alpha effect in 3D vs. 2D condition in men. The novel and most pronounced effect of the gender factor was found in the relation between the EID and the EEG powers in the high-frequency bands-that is, positive correlation of these variables in women (0.64 < Rs < 0.74) but negative correlation in men (-0.66 < Rs < -0.72). Our results imply individually different and gender-dependent effects of the natural stimulus in VR. Correspondingly, the video and VR content development should consider this and aim to provide a user characteristics-tailored experience.

Virtual Reality (VR)’s unprecedented ability to virtually transport the user is purported to be its biggest strength. Yet, despite postulations about VR’s benefits as a tourism marketing tool; the concept of presence, ubiquitous in ICT and cyberpsychology research on immersive technologies, remains nascent in tourism literature. More importantly, researchers in the field have called for empirical studies focused on the determinants as well as consequences of presence, particularly in commercial environments. Existing presence literature has shown that both determinants and consequences of presence are not transferrable across contexts. Understanding the interplay of presence determinants is vital for optimising the technology’s utilisation in different contexts, especially for budget and development focus considerations. A VR experience developed for education or training purposes would have differing impacts and emphasis when compared to a VR experience developed for tourism marketing purposes. Thus, the objective of this project was to investigate the effectiveness of VR as a tourism marketing tool, anchored through establishing a framework encompassing the determinants (immersion, ecological validity, engagement) and consequences of presence on emotional response – an association that has been suggested in cyberpsychology studies. Using a mixedmethod randomised within-subjects experiment, 72 participants experienced computergenerated, fully synthetic virtual environments of a cruise ship. The experiences were administered across pictures, video, and VR. This thesis is structured as a series of three papers. Paper 1 was a critical review aimed at establishing the presence-emotion-intention conceptual framework. Through reviewing VR and presence literature across disciplines, the paper uncovered gaps in previous presence research, compounded by the fragmented and evolving approach to exploring presence. Methodologically, paper 1 revealed the lack of qualitative approaches to presence and VR research, informing the mixed-methods approach of this thesis. The literature review also highlighted that whilst VR research in tourism is growing, researchers have called for future studies to focus specifically on presence determinants. Quantitative findings were presented through Paper 2. Findings from this paper suggest that VR is significantly more effective than traditional media in evoking positive emotional responses to the stimuli. Theoretical implications include suggestions that fully-interactive synthetic VR may be more effective than 360° VR due to the significance of engagement as a presence determinant. Managerial implications include suggestions to focus on engagement mechanics, rather than chasing photo-realistic VR advancements, for impact on emotional response. Paper 3 presented qualitative phase findings. 36 participants were interviewed after experiencing all three stimuli. In terms of triangulation, similar results were found – participants associated the engagement and immersion presence determinants with increases in their positive emotional response as well as intention to visit the cruise. However, several unexpected themes emerged – the sense of agency and goal congruence that users associated with the levels of engagement that VR provided. Participants felt that being in control to see what they wanted, how they wanted, and when they wanted, positively affected their emotional response toward the stimuli and corresponding behavioural intentions toward the cruise. Several participants also attributed a positive shift in perception of cruising to the presence levels from VR, suggesting that the influence of higher presence was amplified for marketing enclosed, all-inclusive tourism products such as cruising or resorts. Theoretically, paper 3 introduced the association between engagement and sense of agency as a key component to the effectiveness of VR for marketing; previously unexplored. The findings also suggested the incorporation of dimensions from cognitive appraisal theory such as goal congruence into the presence-emotion framework from papers 1 and 2. Methodologically, the thesis overall highlights the importance and value of mixed-methods in VR research; traditionally heavily focused only on quantitative approaches. Practically, this thesis emphasises the focus on engagement and level of agency that marketers introducing VR should provide potential travellers. Users should be given a sense that they are in control and involved as an active participant to the virtual experience. As a whole, this thesis established a top-to-bottom presence-emotion-intention framework; a platform for future theoretical exploration and practical applications of VR in tourism and marketing. More importantly, the framework and insights from the papers in this thesis provide avenues for future VR research in tourism to focus on comparing differences in VR platforms, instead of against traditional media.

Purpose This study used virtual reality (VR) and screen eye-tracking systems to examine the effect of visual format and background image on visual attention, sense of presence and mental imagery in VR versus two-dimensional (2D) advertising designs. Design/methodology/approach A 2 (visual format) × 3 (visual background) between-subjects experiment was conducted to investigate participants’ visual attention, perceived product personality, mental imagery and sense of presence, using screen and VR eye-tracking systems. Findings Two-dimensional images with empty backgrounds drew the most attention, while VR with visual backgrounds enhanced product impressions, sense of presence and mental imagery. Sincere backgrounds moderated the link between fixations and imagery quality. Originality/value Guided by media richness theory, this is the first interactive marketing study that utilized gaze data to analyze the connection between ad design and visual reactions in both VR and 2D settings.

Laboratory studies have found that individuals with mild hypertension differ from normotensives in their degree of blood pressure variability and reactivity, defined as the change in blood pressure to specific stimuli. Based on the assumption that mild hypertension represents an intermediate stage in the development of established hypertension, these studies have led to the speculation that exaggerated blood pressure variability and/or reactivity plays an etiological role in the development of established hypertension [1–3]. These findings, however, have not been extended to blood pressure functioning under natural, day-to-day conditions. In the present study we examined blood pressure variability and reactivity over a 24-h period in three groups of individuals: a) normotensive control subjects, defined as a clinic blood pressure ≧ 120/80 mm Hg, b) mild hypertensive subjects, defined as a clinic blood pressure > 120/80 mm Hg < 160/104 mm Hg; and c) established hypertensive subjects, defined as a clinic blood pressure > 160/104 mm Hg. There are no generally accepted ways of measuring blood pressure variability and reactivity in the natural environment [4]; therefore, in this study we have chosen to define variability in three different ways: a) the blood pressure pattern based upon the location/activity in which the measurement was obtained; b) the overall variability of blood pressure; and c) the range in blood pressure. Reactivity was defined as a) blood pressure responses obtained during the performance of activities with either physical or b) psychological demands relative to blood pressure during relaxation, as well as c) the percentage of readings less than the individual’s own clinic reading.