Built Environment, Safety, and Urban Economic Contexts in Shaping Urban Park Visitation for Sustainable Urban Development: Evidence from a Multi-Method Analysis of Las Vegas

A geographical detector study on factors influencing urban park use in Nanjing, China

Public parks and green spaces are important health promoting facilities for urban dwellers, which can bring about improved health outcomes, diminished racial tensions and reduced public stress. Access to urban parks and green spaces is purported to be associated with the development of social capital, increased community well-being and inclusive neighbourhoods. It is within this context that recent decades have witnessed increasing efforts in measuring and modelling park accessibility in cities. Previous studies, however, found significant inconsistency between subjectively (perceived) and objectively (geographic) measured accessibility, indicating the need to examine existing conceptualisation of park accessibility, especially at the individual perceptual level. The accessibility concept has been developed as a multi-dimensional construct that requires a more adequate understanding about its influential factors and dimensions. Existing measures of accessibility have been limited to the concept’s physical and temporal dimensions, leaving other relevant factors such as social conditions and personal constraints, including perceptions, largely unexplored. This research argues for the relevance of socio-personal factors to realistically assess accessibility to urban public parks. There is also a need to clarify how accessibility influences an individual’s decision-making process that ultimately leads to human behaviour of park use or non-use, as psychological study of behavioural intentions to use parks has rarely been investigated. Following a correlational research design and cross-sectional validation approach, this research was proposed to fill these knowledge gaps. The research involved both processes of model development and model validation. Two models were proposed in this study: an expanded theory of planned behavioural (TPB) model and an integrated model of park accessibility. The first model aims to identify the role of park accessibility in influencing individual behavioural intentions towards park use and non-use. The model was developed based on the theory of planned behaviour, with three additional variables included (i.e., perceived park accessibility, geographic proximity, and past use) to compare their relative importance in influencing park use intentions. The second model was proposed based on the critical literature review of the accessibility concept. The model consists of five dimensions, including both physical and socio-personal variables that were identified as being associated with urban park access and use. Both models were empirically tested using questionnaire survey data collected from two cities of different socio-cultural settings: Brisbane (Australia) and Zhongshan (China). Within each city, sampling was carefully designed to represent residents of different socioeconomic backgrounds with an aim of modelling the differences between population groups. Data were analysed quantitatively using statistical methods and spatial analytical techniques. Key findings from this study include: • Empirical findings from this study consistently support the multidimensional nature of the accessibility construct, with results from different case studies confirming that both physical and non-physical factors significantly influence perceived access to urban parks. • The expanded TPB model with perceived accessibility provides the best model fit and highest explanatory power, while also enhancing the prediction of park use intentions. • Perceived access is more important than geographic proximity in predicting urban park use, with physical and locational features (e.g. proximity and travel time) the most important predictors in influencing perceived access to parks. • Less important, but statistically significant, socio-personal dimensions of accessibility are more sensitive to the larger social and cultural context of urban settings, with cultural groups using the parks, shared activities, and safety highlighted as more important non-physical variables to predict perceived access to parks in both city settings. • Lower income groups have significantly lower perceived access to parks than higher income respondents living in the same cities. From an urban planning perspective, this study highlights the importance of moving beyond the realm of conventional planning with physical standards to embrace the important findings of social analysis. The provision of parks is a necessary but insufficient condition to actually increase park use, especially in lower SES communities. Communities with lower SES and people with less mobility are population segments that should receive special attentions to ensure a more efficient and equitable urban service delivery. Therefore, it is important for planners and policy makers to enhance the evidence base whilst mindful of community diversity to provide optimal social outcomes. Possible policy interventions highlighted by this study include but are not limited to: ensuring public parks are reasonably proximate to residential locations; providing quality footpath amenities such as shade and lighting to create a walkable urban landscape; and providing opportunities to develop and sustain an inclusive community culture. In sum, this study was able to address the research gaps by providing insights into individual decision-making towards urban park use. The models were empirically modified and validated in two different cultural settings, thus providing practical tools for urban planners and base frameworks that can be applied to other urban services in future studies.

Although many studies have examined social inequalities related to urban parks, there is limited knowledge about the social inequalities of urban park use during crises. By integrating a large amount of mobile phone data and e-commerce user data, this study tracked 81,350 anonymized individuals’ urban park use behavior in Shenzhen, China, from 2019 to 2021, covering a period before and after the start of the COVID-19 pandemic. Results reveal that while most of the parks saw a reduction of over 50% in the number of visitors, some parks, especially relatively small and remote parks, had more visitors after the pandemic began than before. In addition, COVID-19 has caused residents’ urban parks use time to decrease and such impacts are more severe in vulnerable groups (e.g., females, the elderly, juveniles, and low-income groups). Moreover, there are significant inequalities in urban park use between rich and poor communities, and COVID-19 has slightly exacerbated these inequalities. The study highlighted that integrating mobile phone data with e-commerce data is an effective way to unveil the complex social inequalities behind human behavior. Findings could help to improve social equality in urban park use as well as providing insights for evidence-informed decision-making in post-pandemic recovery and future crises.

This study examined urban park use and physical activity (PA) among diverse children to better understand the potential for park use to increase child PA and reduce early childhood cardiometabolic risk factors. Cross-sectional data were collected (2022-2023) from 430 parent-child dyads who lived within a two-mile radius of one of 20 urban parks. Children ages 6-12years wore an accelerometer for a minimum of 4days (one weekend day and three weekdays) for ten hours each day to capture moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), light and sedentary activity. Parents reported the child's past week PA and past year frequency of any park use. General linear models examined differences in child PA by any park use frequency. Objectively-measured child PA (MVPA, light and sedentary) was not significantly associated with any park use frequency during the past year. Parent-reported child PA was significantly higher among children who most frequently used parks during the past year (12 + park visits/month; active on an average 6.5days per week (95% Confidence Interval (CI): 6.1, 6.9) compared with children whose park use was less frequent (0-4 park visits / month; active on average of 5.6days per week (95% CI: 5.3, 6.0; p < 0.01). Child park use frequency was not associated with objectively-measured child PA but was significantly positively associated with parent report of child PA. Objective measures of individual child total daily PA paired with location data are needed to understand the incremental contribution of park use to child PA. NCT05231827.

Biodiversity loss has been one of the most serious environmental issues on local and global scales. Enhancing people’s pro-environmental behaviors (PEBs) to conserve biodiversity is crucial. Nature experiences are limited for urban residents, although nature experiences in childhood have been focused on as a key factor promoting PEBs. Therefore, we consider the role of urban parks in improving PEBs for urban residents towards sustainable cities and communities (Sustainable Development Goal 11). This study aims to elucidate the relationships among urban park use, PEBs, environmental attitudes, nature experiences in childhood, affective connections, community attachment, and ecosystem services by structural equation modeling, using survey data (n = 638) we collected from real urban park users in Osaka (Japan) in 2024. We have obtained three significant findings. First, urban park use for enjoying nature could promote PEBs, while nature experiences in childhood do not directly affect PEBs. Second, the effects of urban park use on PEBs begin to work when the frequency of urban park use exceeds around 2.2 days per week. Third, the perception of ecosystem services does not promote PEBs. We provide discussions concerning policy measures to increase urban park use based on the results. Note that the collected data may be potentially biased toward frequent park users.

Promoting research on urban park use is important for developing the ecological and environmental health benefits of parks. This study proposes uniquely integrated methods combined with big data to measure urban park use. It combines comprehensive geographic detectors and multiscale geographically weighted regression from a geospatial perspective to quantify the individual and interactive effects of the parks’ characteristics, accessibility, and surrounding environment features on weekday and weekend park use. The study also explores the degree of influence of spatial changes. The results indicate that the park-surrounding facilities and services factor contributed most to use, while its interaction effect with park service capacity had the greatest impact on park use. The interaction effects showed binary or nonlinear enhancement. This suggests that park use should be promoted within multiple dimensions. Many influencing factors had significant changes in the geographic space, suggesting that city-level park zoning construction should be adopted. Finally, park use was found to be affected by users’ subjective preference on weekends and convenience factors on weekdays. These findings provide a theoretical basis for the influencing mechanisms of urban park use, which can help urban planners and policymakers formulate more specific policies to successfully manage and plan urban parks.

Urban green spaces (UGSs) provide various ecosystem services (ESs) that directly and indirectly enhance people’s well-being. However, in the Saudi context, the assessment role of UGSs (such as urban parks and gardens) and their use and accessibility has remained unexplored. This study aims to assess the use and accessibility of five urban parks in the Jeddah megacity of Saudi Arabia from diversified perspectives. Data were collected through a primary survey and questionnaire method using a social preference approach (SPA). Correlation analysis and factor analysis were performed to assess the relationship between activities and services (benefits) provided by urban parks and to examine their most significant benefits. A Kruskal–Wallis (K–S test) test was performed to determine significant differences in the perceived valuations of park benefits. A benefit dominancy index (BDI) was also developed to determine which urban parks provide the most benefit. The findings of the study showed that (i) the urban parks were mostly used for spending time with relatives (partners) and friends, followed by mental refreshment and relaxation, physical activity, and spending time with children; (ii) there are substantial seasonal variations in park visits in the Jeddah megacity; (iii) socio-demographic attributes largely affect the use of urban parks; and (iv) there are also substantial discrepancies between importance and performance related to urban management strategies. Thus, the findings of this study show that city planners and policy makers must focus on the enhancement of UGSs for the well-being of urban citizens.

The exploration of park use and its affecting factors is necessary for urban park planning and management. Using big data, 70 urban parks in Wuhan were selected as the study objects in the present study. Two groups of linear regression models were developed to examine the effects of various factors on park use. The total numbers of visits and public demands in urban parks were recorded as 1,291,894 and 4,022, respectively. Social media data reflect visits, while public demand data reflect demands. First, a large area and sufficient facilities greatly help improve park use; moreover, we should pay attention to old urban parks in disrepair. More squares need to be considered in urban parks; attention should be paid to the water pollution and safety concerns that may arise in urban parks. Second, the influence of accessibility on park use is stable. It is beneficial for park use to construct greenways connecting residential areas and urban parks. The layout of pocket parks in the city center is also a feasible way to improve park use. Third, to improve park use, we should arrange commercial entertainment facilities and services in urban parks in point of interest (POI)-rich areas, as well as facilities and services for residents’ daily activities in urban parks in population-rich areas. This study provides a way to combine multisource data that reflect the number of park visits and park demands to explore affecting factors of park use.

Perceived benefits, aesthetic preferences and willingness to pay for visiting urban parks: A case study in Kolkata, India

The COVID-19 pandemic altered human behavior around the world. To maintain mental and physical health during periods of lockdown and quarantine, people often engaged in outdoor, physically distanced activities such as visits to parks and greenspace. However, research tracking outdoor recreation patterns during the pandemic has yielded inconsistent results, and few studies have explored the impacts of COVID-19 on park use across diverse neighborhoods. We used a mixed methods approach to examine changes in park use patterns in cities across North Carolina, USA, during the COVID-19 pandemic, with an emphasis on impacts in socially vulnerable communities (based on racial/ethnic composition and socioeconomic status). First, we surveyed a demographically representative sample of 611 urban residents during August 2020 to assess their use of outdoor park spaces before and during the pandemic. Second, we used cell phone location (i.e., geo-tracking) data to document changes in park visits within 605 socioeconomically diverse urban census tracts before (July 2019) and during (July 2020) the pandemic. Data from both methods revealed urban park use declined during the pandemic; 56% of survey respondents said they stopped or reduced park use, and geo-tracked park visits dropped by 15%. Park users also became more homogenous, with visits increasing the most for past park visitors and declining the most in socially vulnerable communities and among individuals who were BIPOC or lower-income. Our results raise concerns about urban park use during the COVID-19 pandemic and suggest pre-existing health disparities in socially vulnerable communities might be exacerbated by inequitable access and utilization of parks and greenspace.

Investigating factors influencing park visit flows and duration using mobile phone signaling data

Visitors’ satisfaction and willingness to revisit urban parks are closely linked to park longevity. However, few details of this relationship have been studied. We explored the factors influencing urban park use and factors motivating revisitation in six urban parks in Hangzhou, China. Data from 600 park visitors were collected over three months using a face-to-face questionnaire. These included socio-demographic data, residential data, personal characteristics, park satisfaction, motivations for visit, and other information. A hierarchical regression model was applied to analyze the contribution of each variable to visitation by park users. Physical and mental benefits and previous positive experiences were the main factors motivating park visitation. Age and distance to the nearest park were the main factors driving park revisitation, and they were positively and negatively correlated with visitation frequency, respectively. Long-term and short-term residents, who commute by cycling or walking, made up the majority of park visitors. Interestingly, park features had no significant impact on revisitation. Weather and time limitations were major factors limiting visitation to parks, and traffic and inadequate park facilities limited revisitation. Our results could be useful for urban planners as they develop guidelines to improve visitor satisfaction and promote the longevity of urban parks.

Understanding the association between urban park usage and its effects on visitor satisfaction and mental health benefits is crucial for enhancing the visitor experience and well-being. This study aimed to explore the nonlinear relationships between urban park use and perceived mental health benefits and satisfaction using a gradient boosting decision tree (GBDT) model. The results showed that, compared to traditional linear models, the GBDT model demonstrated improved performance, increasing the R 2 values for mental health benefits and satisfaction by 40.38% and 33.7%, respectively. Regular park visits were found to maximize perceived mental health benefits, while the number of visits exhibited a U-shaped relationship with these benefits. Proximity to the park (within 10 km) and visiting with peers were associated with higher mental health benefits and satisfaction. Among all variables, visiting with peers and visit duration emerged as the most influential factors, contributing 18.3% and 14.1%, respectively, to model predictions. These findings highlight the importance of park design and management strategies that promote social interaction, encourage regular visits, and maintain park accessibility and novelty to maximize their positive impact on public health and satisfaction. This research underscores the potential of machine learning methods like GBDT in advancing our understanding of the complex interactions between urban park use and visitor experience.

Urban park use and self-reported physical, mental, and social health during the COVID-19 pandemic: An on-site survey in Beijing, China

There is growing recognition that interactions with nature provide many desirable human well-being outcomes, yet increasing urbanization is degrading the quality and quantity of nature experiences. Thus, it has become increasingly important to understand how and why urban dwellers interact with nature. Studies of urban green space use have largely focused on the availability and ease of access to green space, suggesting that greater opportunities to experience such space will lead to increased use. However, a growing literature emphasizes the potential for an individual's nature orientation to affect their interaction with green space. Here we measure the importance of both opportunity and orientation factors in explaining urban park use. An urban lifestyle survey was deployed across Brisbane, Australia in November 2012 to assess patterns of green space use. Participants (n = 1479) were asked to provide information on demographics, private yard use, park visitations in the past week, and their orientation toward nature. About 60% of those surveyed had visited a park in the past week, and while this park user population had significantly greater nearby park coverage (within a 250 m radius; p = 0.006), a much stronger determinant of visitation was their higher nature orientation (p<0.00001), suggesting that while both opportunity and orientation are important drivers for park visitation, nature orientation is the primary effect. Park users also spent significantly more time in their yards than non-park users (p<0.00001), suggesting that yard use does not necessarily compensate for lower park use. Park users with stronger nature orientation (i) spent more time in their yard, (ii) traveled further to green spaces, and (iii) made longer visits than park visitors with weaker nature orientation. Overall, our results suggest that measures to increase people's connection to nature could be more important than measures to increase urban green space availability if we want to encourage park visitation.