Bromate-induced oxidation of carbamazepine and toxicity assessment of transformation products in the freezing-sunlight process: Effects of trivalent chromium

Abstract

Bromate (BrO3-)-induced pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) oxidation is enhanced in freezing systems. Reduced forms of metals are widely present, often coexisting with various contaminants. However, their effects on the interaction of PPCPs with BrO3- in ice in cold regions may have been overlooked. Herein we investigated the effects of representative reducing metal Cr(III) on the interaction between the representative PPCP carbamazepine (CBZ) and BrO3- in the freezing system. Our findings demonstrated that the degradation rate constants of CBZ by BrO3- and Cr(III) were 29.4%–60.3% lower than those by BrO3- in ice, revealing the inhibition of Cr(III) on CBZ degradation by BrO3- in ice. In BrO3-/freezing/sunlight system, BrO3- contributed 62.8% to CBZ degradation. In BrO3-/Cr(III)/freezing/sunlight system, Cr(III) promoted the generation of hydroxyl radical (·OH), leading to 51.0% contribution of ·OH to CBZ degradation. Oxidants were consumed by Cr(III) to form Cr(VI) rather than reacting with CBZ, thereby decreasing CBZ degradation by BrO3- in ice. Due to sunlight-induced Cr(VI) reduction in ice, only 0.3% of Cr(III) was converted to Cr(VI) in BrO3-/Cr(III)/freezing/sunlight system. BrO3--induced CBZ degradation rate in ice decreased in order of Fe(II), Cr(III), and Mn(II), which was due to the different reducing capabilities. An effective reduction in comprehensive toxicity of systems followed the freezing-sunlight process, even in the presence of Cr(III). This work sheds new light on the environmental behaviors and fate of PPCPs, brominated disinfection by-products, and reducing metals during seasonal freezing.