Bridging skills gaps: evaluating VET reskilling and curriculum reforms for enhancing graduate employability in Tanzania

Despite improved access to all educational levels, many countries around the world struggle with integrating young people into the labor market. The 2007 economic crisis exacerbated the problem, but not all countries were affected in the same way. This led to a vivid debate about how education and employment systems can and should be linked. Countries with well-developed vocational education and training (VET) systems seem to be better off in terms of their youth labor market situations. This raises the question of how countries should organize and design their VET curricula so that their youth make a smooth transition from education to employment. The Center on International Education Benchmarking (CIEB) has set the goal to analyze the world?s most successful education systems. The objective is to compare the top-performing countries? instructional systems and identify their different approaches to education. Against this backdrop, the CIEB is supporting a comparative study of VET curricula, which are one fundamental component of any education system. However, such an international comparison of VET curricula faces many challenges, resulting mainly from the large variation in how national education systems train vocational and technical qualifications. In addition, VET curricula are not fully comparable due to different national political, economic, cultural, and institutional frameworks. Consequently, the CIEB mandated the KOF Swiss Economic Institute at the ETH Zurich to conduct a Feasibility Study that first defines a common strategy for tack-ling these challenges. Hence, this Feasibility Study aims to reduce the comparability problem to the furthest possible extent. The feasibility study consists of three phases, of which this intermediary report is the product of the first. This first phase addresses the following question: ?Which countries can be identified as top-performing countries that should be included in the VET curricula comparison?? This report presents our findings on four main topics essential for achieving the goal of a feasibility study for the comparison of VET curricula. The first section explains our theoretical and conceptual approaches to the problem. These form the foundation of our strategy for identifying 20 top-performing countries with regard to VET, which is addressed in the second section. The third section presents the selected top-performing countries in brief portraits, which highlight not only their performance but also provide background information on VET governance. Finally, we compare and discuss these top-performing countries with regard to our performance criteria. Finally, this intermediary report concludes with the important findings for the second phase of the project.

Vocational education has a great impact on entrepreneurship as vocational education is expected to emphasis the teaching of entrepreneurial skills and ways of thinking to prepare employees and would-be entrepreneurs. This paper examined the different leadership styles and draw out their implications for the dispensation of vocational entrepreneurship education in Nigeria for national development. Vocational entrepreneurship education has not been fully recognized in the country over the years and in effect it has been difficult to have adequate number of leaders in the few vocational institutions in the country. The success of vocational and entrepreneurship education is largely dependent on the quality of its leadership. It is regrettable to see that vocational and entrepreneurship education is fraught with problems which militate against its ability to produce adequate number and quality of skilled manpower required in our country. The paper identified shortage of funds and materials, staff is grossly inadequate and unqualified, problems of secret societies and drug addiction among students’, poor implementation of entrepreneurship curriculum, poor supervision and inspection of programme in Nigeria schools, the way leadership of schools literally reacts to and manage schools’ crises and the management and administration of vocational and entrepreneurship education to mention but a few out of its inherent problems. The paper suggested that the top and lower management cadres must be committed to work for the realization of the objectives of vocational and entrepreneurship studies at all levels. Also, it is necessary for the leadership to develop their own management skills and learn to adapt the right leadership style in order to win the cooperation of difficult individuals. Keywords: Leadership Styles, Management, Entrepreneurial Studies, Vocational Education, National Development DOI: 10.7176/EJBM/14-8-11 Publication date: April 30 th 2022

This paper reviewed the role of entrepreneurship and vocational education in sustainable development. Graduate unemployment is one of the greatest challenges that bedevil Nigeria, a nation endowed with enormous wealth in terms of human, mineral and natural resources. This paper stresses the importance of entrepreneurship and vocational education curriculum in solving unemployment problems and achieving sustainable development. This papers argues that entrepreneurship and vocational education will provide students who are leaders of tomorrow with skills with which they can be self-reliant because human resource through knowledge based capacity are the cornerstone for effective management and utilization of natural resources. The paper concludes that entrepreneurship and vocational education when engendered leads to employment generation, growth of the economy and promotes sustainable development. The paper recommended that educational institutions at all levels must inculcate and intensify the integration of entrepreneurship and vocational education into its curriculum systems.

The primary aim of Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) is to prepare for the country labour force meeting needs of the labour market, to enable people contribute to sustainable social, economic, environment and industrial development. Ethiopia has implemented the outcome-based Technical and Vocational Education and Training system since 2007. The Ethiopian outcome-based TVET system is a training delivery approach in which the labour market demand is identified and Occupational Standards (OS) are developed by industry and then the curriculum is developed based on the OS developed. Both the Ethiopian occupational standard (EOS) and the Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) curriculum derived from the OS have similar architectural structural mapping. The main objective of this article was to assess how the TVET curriculum mapping in the case of the building construction fields in Ethiopia responds to labour market demand. The main data gathering instruments used in the study were interviews and document analysis. The interviews were held with the TVET stakeholders such as the Federal and Regional TVET curriculum development officials, the TVET college principals, the HoDs and TVET trainers. The documents that were reviewed included the Ethiopian National TVET Strategy and other TVET working documents such as the Ethiopian Occupational Standard and the TVET Curriculum Development manuals as well as other literature related to the study. It is found out that the curricula of building construction fields are the direct and one-to-one conversion of their respective Occupational Standards. The findings again revealed that the general TVET curriculum mapping of the building construction fields have not addressed the country’s labour market demand and training needs. As a result of this, it was noted that the participants were not comfortable with the curriculum mapping of building construction fields laid by the Ethiopian TVET Authority. The paper concludes that the TVET curriculum should not necessarily have been the direct mirror and reflection of its OS when curriculum mapping was designed as it does not reflect the real societal and training needs of students.

In 2015, Lithuania entered a new stage of the vocational education and training (VET) curriculum reform with the introduction of the national competence-based qualifications standards and the modularisation of the VET curriculum on the basis of these standards. Competence in Lithuania is understood holistically as a ‘totality’ of knowledge, skills and attitudes. The statements of competencies in the standards mainly reflect work processes and it is the role of curriculum designers and vocational education and training teachers (VET teachers) to ‘uncover’ all domains of competency in learning outcomes, learning assignments and assessment criteria. In the Lithuanian context, the modularisation of VET programmes challenges integration of theory and practice within and between different modules and calls for more intensive cooperation of teachers in planning and implementing instruction. This paper aims to explore how knowledge representation has changed in the Lithuanian national and school VET curricula, how changes brought by the curriculum reform reflect in everyday work of VET teachers and, consequently, what challenges vocational teachers face in learners’ knowledge formation. The paper is based on content analysis of the national and school level curriculum documents and semi-structured interviews with VET teachers and administrative staff.

Purpose Recent technological progress has significantly transformed production tools and processes, requiring the workforce to develop new skills. This study aims to analyze how vocational and technical education (VTE) in Türkiye equips students with the technical skills and workforce qualifications required by the knowledge-based economy, drawing on evidence from job advertisements and stakeholder perspectives. Design/methodology/approach The study used an embedded case study design, collecting data through document review and semi-structured and focus group interviews. Job ads were analyzed, while opinions from vocational-technical education principals, teachers, small and medium-sized enterprise (SME) managers and employer representatives in Mersin (2023) were gathered. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and content analysis. Findings Job advertisements indicate that the most in-demand skills are collaboration, communication, initiative/self-management and productivity. However, critical thinking is never mentioned, and skills like researching-questioning, digital citizenship and decision-making are sought at lower levels. Interview analysis shows that while knowledge-based economy skills are crucial for business life, vocational-technical education fails to adequately provide these qualifications. This gap in upskilling is attributed to socioeconomic factors, lack of resources and issues related to curriculum and organizational structure/processes. Research limitations/implications It highlights the significance of human capital, skill development and knowledge production for economic growth, while revealing a skill mismatch between VTE in Türkiye and labor market demands. It has several limitations. First, it focuses solely on Turkey, possibly restricting the applicability of its findings to other countries. Second, the qualitative data are based on a small sample of 11 educators and 14 SME managers, possibly limiting the diversity of perspectives. Third, job advertisements were collected from a single platform (kariyer.net), which may not fully represent Turkey's entire labor market. Lastly, data collection from job advertisements occurred between August and December 2022, meaning the findings may not capture long-term trends or changes in employer demands within the evolving labor market. Practical implications Practically, the study recommends curriculum reform to strengthen analytical and digital skills, increased investment in VTE infrastructure and continuous teacher training. It also emphasizes addressing socioeconomic barriers affecting students' learning and promoting stronger collaboration between VTE institutions and employers to better align educational outcomes with industry needs, ultimately enhancing the employability and readiness of VTE graduates. Social implications First, skill gaps disproportionately affect disadvantaged groups, increasing social inequality and perpetuating cycles of poverty and limited social mobility. Second, the mismatch between education and labor market needs may lead to a surge in youth unemployment or underemployment. Third, low emphasis on digital citizenship, questioning and decision-making may hinder the development of informed, critically engaged citizens. Lastly, employers may face increased costs of in-house training to fill competency gaps, especially in non-technical skills. Originality/value The study fills a critical research gap by examining the alignment between VTE and labor market demands in Türkiye, offering both theoretical insights and practical recommendations for improving the system. Its findings are particularly relevant for policymakers, educators and industry leaders seeking to bridge the skill gap in a knowledge-based economy.

This contribution to the symposium on Michael Young’s article ‘Overcoming the crisis in curriculum theory: a knowledge based approach’, supports his contention that curriculum theory has lost sight of its object—‘what is taught and learned in schools’, and argues that this has particularly deleterious consequences for vocational education and training (VET). VET is unproblematically positioned as applied, experiential and work-focused learning, and it is seen as a solution for those who are alienated from or unsuccessful in more traditional forms of academic education. This article argues that rather than being a mechanism for social inclusion, VET is instead a key way in which social inequality is mediated and reproduced because it excludes students from accessing the theoretical knowledge they need to participate in debates and controversies in society and in their occupational field of practice. It presents a social realist analysis to argue why VET students need access to theoretical knowledge, how a focus on experiential and applied learning constitutes a mechanism for social exclusion and what a ‘knowledge rich’ VET curriculum would look like.

Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) serves as a pillar for economic stability globally. Entrepreneurship education provides young people with essential skills that can be used in a positive manner, thus enabling them to be employers rather than employees. Marrying TVET and entrepreneurship education can help Trinidad and Tobago (T&T) in tremendous ways. These two subjects TVET and entrepreneurship can lift T&T to global prestige. Given this context, the study explored the benefits of exposing Post-Secondary TVET students to entrepreneurial training. An investigation was carried out using a mix-methods approach. The use of regression analysis and Spearman’s Correlation Analysis were used that determine the relationship between exposing Post-Secondary Technical Vocational Education and Training Students (PSTVETS) to entrepreneurship education and their interest in entrepreneurial training. Additionally, qualitative data was incorporated by utilising content analysis, focus groups and semi-structured interviews. The data revealed there was an absence of entrepreneurship education. Upon further investigation there was no real entrepreneurship culture or framework implemented within the PS schools. The results also showed the more students are exposed to entrepreneurship education more they are inclined to pursue entrepreneurship endeavours. Data also allowed the reader to grasped copious challenges experienced within TVET in T&T, that impacts on entrepreneurial training within post-secondary institutions in T&T. The researchers put forward an entrepreneurship education model that can be incorporated in the training of post-secondary schools. Additionally a strategy was articulated as to how entrepreneurship education can be adopted within the training of post-secondary institutions. Providing an adequate framework for entrepreneurial training within entrepreneurship education, and TVET provides originality and contribution to the field of TVET and entrepreneurship education.

Challenges in vocational education and training (VET) remain among the primary issues confronting Kosovo’s education system. The most critical challenges are structural and institutional, particularly those related to implementing professional practice, enhancing youth employability, and aligning VET with labor market demands. The study employed both quantitative and qualitative methods, conducted across five municipalities, nine schools, and forty partner companies. Participants included 125 students, nine school coordinators responsible for professional practice, and thirty-nine company mentors. Findings indicate that the absence of structured institutional cooperation, the predominance of theoretical content, and inadequate practical infrastructure significantly undermine VET quality. They further highlight the crucial role of trained instructors as a decisive factor for process effectiveness. A comparison with successful European models, particularly the German and Swiss systems, underscores gaps in Kosovo’s context, emphasizing the need for institutionalized partnerships, infrastructure modernization, and curriculum reform. The study recommends developing a national strategy for professional practice, training and certifying instructors, and introducing fiscal incentives for businesses offering placements. These conclusions provide a foundation for sustainable policies and strategic interventions aimed at improving youth employability and fostering long-term economic growth.

Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) plays a vital role in workforce development and sustainable economic growth globally. This review examines challenges affecting TVET quality and employability, including skill gaps, curriculum and teaching limitations, institutional barriers, and prevalent perception issues. It highlights the increasing integration of digital innovations such as augmented reality and digital pedagogy, alongside Industry 4.0 competencies, to address these challenges. The review synthesizes strategies for enhancing TVET quality through curriculum reform, industry collaboration, digital pedagogy enhancement, and enrollment interventions. Furthermore, it emphasizes TVET's contribution to sustainable development goals through the embedding of green skills and its positive impact on employment outcomes. The findings underscore the need for coherent policy frameworks aligning TVET with evolving labor markets and sustainability priorities to foster inclusive growth and workforce readiness.

Students in community college programs designed expressly for career training are often academically under-prepared. Yet traditional academic courses may be ineffective for them because the content tends to be general rather than focused on career topics. The separation of academic and career-related content minimizes the likelihood of generalization of learning across the two contexts, so that, for example, writing skills developed in freshman composition class may not be applied in an allied health class. Further, given their educational histories and learning styles, students whose main objective is to prepare for a career may not see the value of general education (Grubb, Badway, Bell, & Kraskouskas, 1996) and may avoid taking academic courses altogether. A way around these problems is to integrate occupational and academic education. (By occupational education we mean associates and certificate programs leading to career entry or advancement.) Emanating from Dewey’s (1916) philosophy, integrated instruction makes academic courses more occupational and occupational education more academic. Academic-occupational integration is the fusion of reading, writing, English language, math, and/or critical thinking skills with career-related instruction. Integration is accomplished by linking or clustering courses, infusing academic instruction into occupational courses or vice versa, or adding components such as authentic assessment, career exploration, and work-based learning to traditional career-related education (Badway & Grubb, 1997). For the community college, integrated instruction promises both curricular and pedagogical reform. Curricular reform is possible through the synthesis of two normally disparate areas, and pedagogical reform occurs when teacher-centered instruction is replaced with more stimulating student-centered teaching. This Brief is drawn from a case study of seven community colleges that used curriculum and pedagogy to integrate academic and occupational education. The colleges were in urban, suburban, and rural areas in four states, two in the Northeast and two in the Midwest. The sites were selected based on the following criteria: (1) the institution was offering one or more integrated occupational courses; (2) the college considered the course(s) to be good examples of integration; (3) and the course(s) exemplified one of the curriculum integration models identified by Badway and Grubb (1997) or the Illinois Task Force on Integration (1997). Neither the colleges nor the states in which they are located constitute a representative sample. A total of 33 classes participated, of which 25 were observed. In addition, students in 23 classrooms completed an anonymous survey, and 137 individuals were interviewed, including 77 students, 40 instructors and chairs, 13 administrators, and 7 other personnel.

This study addresses the critical skills gap between Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) systems and industry needs by proposing a conceptual framework for Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) in TVET. Despite TVET's potential to enhance employability, many systems—particularly in developing economies—struggle with outdated curricula, inadequate infrastructure, and weak industry linkages. Through a mixed-methods approach combining literature review, case studies (e.g., Malaysia’s Penang Skills Development Centre and Bangladesh’s SEIP program), and stakeholder interviews, the study identifies key mechanisms for effective industry–academia collaboration: joint curriculum design, shared infrastructure, faculty exchanges, and standardized apprenticeships. Findings reveal that institutionalized PPPs significantly improve graduate employability (e.g., SEIP’s 70% placement rate) but face challenges like cultural mismatches and funding asymmetries. The proposed framework integrates governance, resource-sharing, and monitoring components to align TVET with labor market demands. Recommendations include policy incentives for private-sector engagement, phased pilot testing, and robust M&E systems. This research contributes a scalable model for bridging the skills gap while emphasizing contextual adaptation for low- and middle-income settings.

This study addresses the critical skills gap between Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) systems and industry needs by proposing a conceptual framework for Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) in TVET. Despite TVET's potential to enhance employability, many systems—particularly in developing economies—struggle with outdated curricula, inadequate infrastructure, and weak industry linkages. Through a mixed-methods approach combining literature review, case studies (e.g., Malaysia’s Penang Skills Development Centre and Bangladesh’s SEIP program), and stakeholder interviews, the study identifies key mechanisms for effective industry–academia collaboration: joint curriculum design, shared infrastructure, faculty exchanges, and standardized apprenticeships. Findings reveal that institutionalized PPPs significantly improve graduate employability (e.g., SEIP’s 70% placement rate) but face challenges like cultural mismatches and funding asymmetries. The proposed framework integrates governance, resource-sharing, and monitoring components to align TVET with labor market demands. Recommendations include policy incentives for private-sector engagement, phased pilot testing, and robust M&E systems. This research contributes a scalable model for bridging the skills gap while emphasizing contextual adaptation for low- and middle-income settings.

This study investigates the vocational and technical skills of final-year students enrolled in Omani government vocational colleges and the extent to which these skills align with labor market needs. The research aligns with the goals of Oman Vision 2040, which emphasizes workforce readiness and economic diversification. Despite reforms in technical and vocational education and training (TVET), employers continue to report skill mismatches. A quantitative cross-sectional design was used in this study. Four hundred students from eight public vocational colleges were surveyed. A validated questionnaire measured three dimensions: vocational skills, technical skills, and alignment with labor market demands. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-tests, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and Pearson's correlation coefficient. Students reported moderate-to-high levels of vocational (Mean [M] = 3.62) and technical (M = 3.55) skills, but perceived alignment with labor market demands (M = 3.40) was slightly lower compared to their reported vocational and technical skills. Although no significant gender differences were found, technical skills differed significantly across specializations, with engineering students scoring the highest. A moderate positive correlation (r = 0.57, P < 0.001) was found between skill levels and perceived labor market alignment. While students perceived themselves to be moderately skilled, gaps remained between the types and levels of skills they possessed, and the specific competencies employers required. Enhancing practical training, integrating soft skills, and expanding work-based learning to improve graduate employability are recommended. This study's insights can inform policymakers and educators aiming to improve TVET outcomes in Oman.

Skill development is pivotal to Pakistan’s economic and social transformation, addressing human capital challenges. This systematic literature review synthesizes findings from 38 peer-reviewed studies conducted between 2015 and 2024 to evaluate Pakistan’s existing policies and practices. Findings reveal myriad barriers in Pakistan’s vocational education ecosystem, including outdated curricula, weak industry-academia collaboration, and governance inefficiencies, disproportionately affecting vulnerable rural populations. Programs like the National Skills Strategy (NSS) and Punjab Skills Development Fund (PSDF) aim to align education with labor market demands, but financial constraints and governance inefficiencies hinder implementation. Due to infrastructural inadequacies, digital literacy and entrepreneurial education programs face implementation challenges. The study advocates for experiential learning modalities and inclusive policies to dismantle socio-cultural barriers. Comparisons with global models such as Germany’s dual education system and Singapore’s SkillsFuture initiative illustrate opportunities to modernize Pakistan’s TVET (Technical and Vocational Education and Training) framework. Policy recommendations emphasize the need for strategic investments in digital infrastructure to modernize curricula, foster industry partnerships, and integrate cutting-edge technologies aligning TVET with Industry 4.0, fostering public-private partnerships, and promoting gender-inclusive strategies to enhance workforce readiness and economic competitiveness. These reforms align with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 4 and 8, offering a pathway for Pakistan to enhance workforce readiness, foster economic competitiveness, and promote equitable socioeconomic development.