BRICS EXPANSION: CHINA–INDIA RELATIONS AND CONTENTIONS OVER ITS ROLE

South African dominance of trade in Africa as well as its position as a regional hegemon was entrenched by the Trade, Development and Cooperation Agreement (TDCA) with the European Union in 1999. South Africa's full-blown integration into the BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) formation since 2011 has brought new dynamics, however, as South Africa now has a marked BRICS orientation. Although the European Union (EU) as a bloc is still South Africa's largest trading partner, China has become South Africa's largest single-country trading partner. The question arises as to whether this new found loyalty makes sense in terms of South Africa's regional position and its trade prospects. Against the background of more intra-industry trade with the EU and the new and growing inter-industry trade with the other BRICS economies, South Africa's trade share of African trade has been in relative decline. This study uses an international political economy framework to analyse South African trade hegemony based on the TDCA and the possible effects of a shift towards BRICS. The conclusion is that, although the shift towards BRICS can politically be justified, economically it should not be at the expense of the benefits of the more advantageous relationship with the EU.

An integral part of globalisation is the emergence of a multipolar world. Strategic partnership at the regional, interregional and trans-regional levels is becoming a new institution and an instrument of modern international relations. The research discusses the international legal cooperation framework of BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) as a trans-regional association. The importance of rapprochement of the positions of the BRICS countries in the global political and economic system is emphasised. Particular attention is paid to assessing the BRICS countries economic potential and condition of their national economies, as well as analysing the foreign trade partners of Russia with the BRICS countries, development opportunities and prospects. The following results were obtained: positive factors contributing to the BRICS countries’ trade and economic cooperation strengthening are common interests in trade, export activity and export complementarity of some economic sectors, and the absence of direct competition. The measures to increase and expand mutually beneficial trade and economic partnership within BRICS will enable the countries to most effectively use their resource, technological and trade and economic potential to ensure sustainable growth of the national economy and competitiveness in world development. The results obtained can help formulate a trade and economic cooperation strategy within the BRICS framework.

The emergence of the ‘BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa)’ has ignited the considerable debate regarding its impact on global governance and its potential to challenge the existing global order. This review paper highlights the importance of BRICS in global leadership and its role in reshaping the dynamics of global governance. It examines the relevance of BRICS, comprising emerging economies and highly populated countries, in the context of a changing global order. Furthermore, it examines the level of threat posed by BRICS to the existing global order and explores how this association is changing the dynamics of global governance. The review evaluates two contrasting research articles by Sudip Chakraborty and Mohammed Nuruzzaman. Chakraborty emphasizes the role of regional powers, particularly the BRICS nations, in global governance, advocating their integration to address contemporary challenges. He suggests that the BRICS, through collaborative and institutionalization efforts, have the potential to reshape global power dynamics and proposes democratic reforms for better representation of developing nations. In contrast, Nuruzzaman questions the BRICS threat to the post-war liberal world order, arguing that the group needs substantial convergence in foreign policy, ideological unity and a coherent vision, and expressing doubts due to internal heterogeneity. The article recognizes the economic influence of the BRICS but questions its viability as a political alternative.

The BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) bloc, representing a coalition of major developing nations, has recently expanded by admitting six new members—Argentina, Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE—effective from January 1, 2024. This expansion transforms the bloc into BRICS Plus (+), reflecting the rising multipolarity in global politics and economics. This paper examines the implications of BRICS Plus for Pakistan, assessing potential economic, geopolitical, and security benefits while addressing challenges such as Indian opposition and Western pressure. The study concludes with policy recommendations for Pakistan to leverage this opportunity by enhancing trade, investment, and diplomatic relations within BRICS.

This article analyzes the general and the particular role of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) and the BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) in the Eurasia integration processes. SCO and BRICS are considered as new forms of international integration in the context of globali-zation. Particular attention is devoted to show the promising areas of cooperation between the SCO and BRICS in Central Asia as a region - the module forming a new global system of global economic rela-tions and international integration. SCO is defined in the article as a regional organization of a global type, in which the key value along with the factors of economic feasibility and safety received a humanistic component, understood as adap-tation and readiness of participants to a new format of dialogue for the future (the “Shanghai spirit”). It is noted that the establishment of the BRICS, above all, was a response to the failure of traditional for XX century the economic and geopolitical rationales and motivations in setting priorities of human development. In addition to the global dimension of the BRICS has a strong regional dimension, which has no analogues in the world practice, each of the BRICS countries is an integral part of continental, regional and subregional conjugate markets and geopolitical spaces. At the global level, BRICS appears in three dimensions: international (traditional), intercontinental and interregional. Within intercontinental partner-ship, the BRICS countries are portals (Gate) for inclusion in the global international cooperation of econo-mies of the regions and related subregions. Regional-global features of the SCO and the global-regional component of the BRICS compete with each other and mutually complementary, that is, can become an important resource for their self-development. Unlike the SCO, in which there is an organizational structure that provides members the vari-ous formats of development, in BRICS priority is given to consensus five-sided format of interaction, which is the key feature of this Group. The analysis showed that the transition to a new international eco-nomic system on the platform of the BRICS can be implemented in the following stated areas of coopera-tion that form the regional development module of global type: cluster of economic and trade partnership; sectoral cooperation; joint participation in large-scale projects to address global problems. Here is the bow with the largest of announced projects in the SCO space - the idea of a cooperation to integrate the Eurasian Economic Union and the Economic belt of the Silk Road, which will require pairing of national development strategies and to further the formation of a partnership network for multilateral associations.

This narrative provides a comprehensive analysis of the economic, political, and diplomatic factors influencing defense strategy formulation within the BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) context. Drawing on a wide range of sources, the narrative explores the historical evolution and recent shifts in BRICS defense strategies, highlighting the diverse approaches of member nations. The research adopts a qualitative descriptive approach, systematically gathering secondary data from academic journals, governmental reports, and reputable websites. The analysis focuses on the interplay between economic conditions, political dynamics, and defense strategy formulation in BRICS nations, providing nuanced insights into how these factors shape defense policies. It examines the influence of economic dependency on defense policies, emphasizing the role of economic stability in sustaining robust defense capabilities. Additionally, the narrative delves into the impact of political systems and leadership dynamics on defense strategy formulation, as well as the significance of diplomatic relations and security considerations. The findings underscore the complex interplay between economic, political, and defense factors within the BRICS framework, with implications for regional stability and resilience. The study finds that economic dependency is a pivotal factor in shaping BRICS defense strategies, with economic stability underpinning the capacity for robust defense capabilities. Political systems and leadership dynamics also play a crucial role, with centralized systems facilitating assertiveness and democratic frameworks emphasizing consensus-building. Diplomatic relations and security cooperation are integral to these strategies, highlighting the importance of strategic collaboration in addressing shared security challenges. The expansion of BRICS introduces new dynamics, particularly in energy investment and trade, requiring adaptive strategies to maintain stability and resilience. Finally, the narrative suggests future research directions to further explore these dynamics and enrich our understanding of BRICS defense strategies in the evolving global security landscape.

The aim of the study is to examine the country-based concentration of exports of Türkiye and BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) and export similarity to the European Union (EU) common market. Data were obtained from the International Trade Center Trademap database. In the study, according to the data of 2021, Türkiye and the first five countries in the export of BRICS are included. While the country-based concentration of Türkiye and BRICS for the period 2001-2021 was analyzed using the Gini-Hirschman Index (GHI), the Export Similarity Index (ESI) was used for export similarity to the EU common market. The results of the study show that while the product variety in Türkiye's exports to the United Kingdom, the United States, and Germany has increased significantly over time, the product variety in exports to Italy and Spain shows a fluctuating course, according to the coefficient values calculated by the GHI method. While there was no major change in product diversity in BRICS exports to the USA, Japan and South Korea during the period under review, product diversity in exports to Hong Kong showed a fluctuating course, but product diversity decreased significantly in 2021. There is no radical change in product diversity in BRICS exports to China. The fact that the exports of Türkiye and BRICS to the EU market have an ESI value of 60.75 means that they are in competition in the relevant product groups and pose a threat to each other.

The present study analyses BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) capital markets in both time and frequency domain using wavelets. We used artificial neural network techniques to forecast the co-movement among BRICS capital markets. Wavelet coherence and clustering estimates uncover the interesting dynamics among the BRICS capital markets co-movement. A wavelet coherence diagram shows a clear contagion effect among BRICS nations, and it favors short period investments over longer period investments. Overall study estimates indicate that co-movement among BRICS nations significantly differs statistically at different levels. Except for China during the great financial crisis period, significant levels of co-movement were observed between other BRICS nations and that lasted for a longer period of time. A wavelet clustering diagram demonstrates that investors would not get any substantial benefits of diversification by investing only in the ‘Russia and China’ or ‘India and South Africa’ capital markets. Lastly, the study attempts to forecast the BRICS capital market co-movement using two different types of neural networks. Further, RMSE (Root Mean Square Error) values confirm the correctness of the forecasting model. The present study answers the key question, “What kind of integration and globalization framework do we need for sustainable development?”.

Africa is said to be rising, turning a definitive page in its history, heralding new and exciting possibilities for the continent. This discourse maintains that with upsurge in economic growth comes improved governance and endogenous dynamics; that the emerging economies, and especially the BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India China, South Africa), have been instrumental in diversifying Africa's international relations, perhaps leading to a radical change in the global order, favourable to the developing world. But to what extent is this true, and how deep and how broad has been the impact on society at large? This book takes a critical look at the prevalent Africa Rising discourse, and explores the nature and implications of Africa's rise and the role that the BRICS have played in it. The author argues that Africa has still to undergo any structural transformation; that there is strong evidence that deindustrialisation and jobless growth have accompanied the upsurge of interest in the continent; and that far from making a radical turn in its developmental trajectory, Africa is being pushed into the resource corner as commodity exporters, to the North (and now, the BRICS) with little scope for industrial progress or skills advancement. Hope that the BRICS might offer an alternative to the extant neoliberal order are misplaced, for the BRICS have a stake in maintaining the current global unequality. Africa must therefore fashion its own independent path - while the emerging economies will be important, relying on external actors may simply reproduce anew the current state of underdevelopment. Ian Taylor is Professor in International Relations and African Politics, University of St Andrews; Chair Professor, Renmin, University of China; Professor Extraordinary, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa; Honorary Professor, Institute of African Studies, Zhejiang Normal University, China; and a Visiting Scholar at Mbarara University of Science and Technology, Uganda.

The authors consider current status and prospects of Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) and the group of BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa). It is argued that both are formed by big quickly growing economies. This provides a good potential of economic cooperation. The authors single out the following factors. First of all, all member countries show positive dynamics of economic development. GDP in BRICS and SCO countries grew at the beginning of the XXI century significantly faster than in integration associations built by developed countries (EU, NAFTA). In general, the largest growing economies are on the raising wave of economic cycle and they invest a significant portion of national income into development. This secures them a benefit against developed countries. Secondly, the countries of SCO and BRICS possess vast human potential which is rapidly growing both quantitatively and qualitatively. Thirdly, they are rich in natural resources – in terms of both minerals and agro-climatic conditions. That is why these countries can economically complement each other. BRICS countries already practice economic partnership in a number of spheres – financial, agricultural, scientific and technological. As for investment partnership, the favorable prospects exist for carrying out multilateral mega-projects within BIRCS and SCO. Russia is especially interested in power engineering. Other prospective spheres include airspace, transportation infrastructure, environmental protection, education and vocational training. An important incentive to enhancing cooperation is common strive for transition from conservative resource-based type of development to the innovative economy. Acknowledgments. The article has been supported by the Program of Ural Division of RAS № 14 “Fundamental Problems of Regional Economies, 2015–2017”.

The study investigated two aspects, namely, (1) the impact of renewable energy consumption on economic growth in BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) and (2) whether education is a channel through which renewable energy consumption affects economic growth in BRICS. Panel data analysis such as fully modified ordinary least squares (FMOLS), pooled ordinary least squares (POLS) and fixed effects methods were used with data ranging from 1994 to 2015. Both models across all the three estimation techniques show that renewable energy consumption had a significant negative effect on economic growth in support of the findings by Silva et al (2012) and Lee and Jung (2018). What is also clear across all the three panel data analysis methods used is that education reduced the size of the negative effect of renewable energy consumption on economic growth in BRICS. In other words, education is a channel through which renewable energy consumption’s influence on economic growth is enhanced, in support of views by Dunn and Mutti (2004), Ozcicek and Agpak (2017) and Lawrence et al. (1991). The implication of the study is that BRICS countries are therefore urged to invest more in education as that is more likely to enhance the impact of renewable energy consumption on economic growth. Keywords: Renewable Energy Consumption; Education; Growth; BRICS; Panel Data JEL Classifications: Q2, I2, F43, P2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.8497

Every BRICS nation has grown a multitude of successful companies over the past two decades. At the fifth BRICS Summit in Durban in 2013, South Africa demonstrated an entrepreneurial enthusiasm for collaboration within the BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa). High priority was accorded to examining how to create intra-BRICS opportunities on the African continent to benefit all partners, including African businesses.

Purpose: The study’s objectives were twofold. Firstly, to examine the determinants of foreign direct investment in BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa). Secondly, the study explored whether the complementarity between trade openness and infrastructural development was one of the drivers of foreign direct investment inflows into BRICS during the period under study.
 Design/Methodology/Approach: The study used fixed effects, dynamic ordinary least squares (dynamic OLS) and the fully modified ordinary least squares (FMOLS) with data ranging from 1994 to 2020.
 Findings: Trade openness (FMOLS, dynamic OLS, fixed effects), economic growth (FMOLS) and exchange rates (fixed effects, FMOLS) were found to have had a significant positive effect on foreign direct investment inflow into BRICS. The study also noted that the influence of inflation (fixed effects), financial development (fixed effects, FMOLS) and human capital development (FMOLS, fixed effects) on foreign direct investment was significantly negative.
 Implications/Originality/Value: To attract more foreign direct investment inflows into their countries, BRICS authorities are urged to develop and implement policies geared towards enhancing trade openness, economic growth and strength of their local currencies.

Whilst knowledge about diseases is universal, access to health care is not equally distributed. During the last decade, the countries of BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) have become important actors on the global health scene, pushing for universal, affordable, and more equal access to health care. Although non-communicable diseases place a significant burden on all populations and health systems, low- and middle-income countries (LMIC), such as BRICS, have been affected particularly hard. Approximately 80 percent of worldwide deaths from non-communicable diseases occur in LMIC. We examined if guidelines concerning chronic heart failure from BRICS countries are influenced by global scripts and if these guidelines have converged or diverged in an inter-state context. Our analysis shows that guidelines on heart failure published in BRICS predominantly rely on models initially formulated by European or American cardiological organisations. Guidelines from BRICS deviate from these models to some extent, in particular with regard to specific epidemiological conditions. Except for the Indian guideline, they do not, however, extensively engage with BRICS-specific aspects of costs, access to and affordability of health care services. We interpret these results through the lens of sociological theories on globalisation. Consistent with neoinstitutionalism, recommendations for clinical practice guidelines have spread in BRICS countries in a rather isomorphic fashion. Notwithstanding, some local medical traditions have also been included into these guidelines through localised adaptation and variation.

Subject Manufacturing outlook in BRICS and MINT countries. Significance The 2008 financial crisis underlined the extent to which BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) and MINT (Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria, Turkey) economies have transitioned from low cost offshoring locations to important producers and consumers of manufactured goods in their own right. As wages rise, governments need to implement reforms to retain competitiveness and capture more value-adding activities to avoid the middle-income trap of being locked into an initial development stage. Despite a convergence in industrial policy priorities around skills, infrastructure and research and development (R&D) spending, disparities remain between BRICS and MINT countries in their ability to attract foreign investment. Impacts Increases in wage and other overheads in China will create opportunities for economies with lower wages and higher relative productivity. High value-adding manufacturing activities are increasingly associated with specialised regional or city hubs of expertise and supply. A strong dollar will boost exports to the United States, strengthening manufacturing growth in Mexico, China and India.