BPO—A battery production ontology for traceable, transparent, and sustainable electric vehicle batteries

Problem. This article addresses the challenge of enhancing the environmental friendliness and energy efficiency of vehicles. It does so by conducting a comparative analysis and identifying ways to improve the electrical models of lithium-ion batteries used in electric vehicles. The study includes an examination of well-known electrical models of lithium-ion rechargeable batteries, such as the Rint model, the RC model, the Thevenin model, and the PNGV model. It identifies key characteristics of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles, including state of charge, mass, actual voltage, energy required for recharging, among others. The study also explores models of battery degradation, focusing on capacity reduction and the increase in active resistance. It substantiates directions for improving electrical models of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles by considering changes in capacity, internal resistance, polarization resistance, and both calendar and cyclic degradation. Goal. The aim of this work is to enhance the environmental friendliness and energy efficiency of vehicles through a comparative analysis and by determining ways to improve the electrical models of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles. Methodology. Our approach to achieving this goal involves using electrical models of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles, which describe various parameters such as state of charge, actual voltage during charge/discharge processes, and energy required for recharging. The study encompasses an investigation into the degradation of electric vehicle batteries, including their use in Vehicle to Grid (V2G) technology. Results. The analysis of electrical models of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles, aiming to increase their accuracy, considers the following aspects: changes in internal resistance and polarization resistance; capacity variation; and battery degradation. The change in internal resistance and polarization resistance should be considered based on two factors: the state of charge of the battery and the degree of its degradation. While the first factor is relevant primarily when the battery is deeply discharged (SoC<30%), the second factor must be considered at any state of charge. Capacity changes should be accounted for based on calendar and cyclic degradation. It has been determined that the primary causes of degradation in electric vehicle batteries are calendar aging (service life) and aging due to charge/discharge cycles. Contrarily, it is argued that using Vehicle to Grid (V2G) technology can reduce battery degradation by 10%. Originality. The results of this study provide a comprehensive understanding of the electrical models of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles and contribute to the improvement of existing models. Practical value. This research enhances the accuracy of current electrical models of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles by considering the variable nature of internal resistance and capacity during vehicle operation. It may be valuable in assessing the residual parameters of electric vehicle batteries during their secondary use, such as in the residential sector for solar energy support. The findings can be recommended to scientific and technical professionals involved in developing energy storage systems for electric vehicles.

How the external environment affects the equilibrium decisions and profits of battery and EV manufacturers?

The electrification of transport systems is essential for improved city air quality and reduced noise, may also contribute to enhanced energy security and decreased greenhouse gas emissions. The key enabler of the large-scale uptake of electric vehicles (EVs) are improved lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), offering higher mass specific energies, volumetric energy densities, potential differences and energy efficiencies. Most LIBs used in automotive applications combine nickel-cobalt-manganese (NCM) oxide cathodes with graphite (Gr) anodes intercalating lithium ions from organic electrolyte solutions of lithium salts. Two widely reported modifications include increasing the nickel content in cathodes and introducing silicon-graphite (SiGr) composite anodes, enabling increased energy storage capacities. Technological developments in EVs and LIBs have triggered a growing interest in using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to quantify the environmental burdens of electrified mobility (Ellingsen et al., 2014; Kim et al., 2016). Figure 1 compares the global warming potential (GWP) (kg CO2-eq. (battery kW h)- 1) of battery manufacturing at different locations, for reports that allowed the production footprint to be distinguished. The indication that despite the higher coal intensity in its electricity mix, China’s LIB manufacturing has a lower GWP production footprint than other regions is counter-intuitive and raises the need for more detailed analysis. An important additional aim of this work is to consider whether the high environmental burdens of producing LIBs can be counter-balanced by extended EV use periods and the parameters that affect these. Since nickel-rich cathodes and silicon-based anodes are considered the most promising modifications for next-generation LIBs in the near-term, their combined environmental performance is studied. This paper reports on the development of a detailed unit process-based Life Cycle Inventory model, built to assess the production of current and future NCM batteries in China. The definition of the studied product system and LCI model is followed by the introduction of four different battery production scenarios, which were developed to assess the impacts of producing batteries in China, study the introduction of silicon in anodes and examine the effects of two novel cathode chemistries with increased nickel content (NCM622, NCM811). A detailed presentation of the production phase impacts is provided, based on the ReCiPe 1.08 Midpoint characterisation method. The production phase analysis is complemented by the development of a gate-to-gate model, assessing the environmental impact of using a LIB in a passenger vehicle in China. The results indicate that the GWP of producing a LIB in China is 250 kg CO2-eq (battery kW h)-1, which is 40% higher than previously estimated (Ellingsen et al., 2014) and significantly higher than earlier reported values for China (Hao et al., 2017; Yu et al., 2018). The mismatch with the latter two studies is due to the fundamentally different assumptions made when modelling the production phase. This work provides the means to make sensible comparisons, using the same model and assumptions, and accurately benchmark the performance of different scenarios. It is shown that copper production for anode current collectors makes the most important contribution towards all human toxicity and ecotoxicity categories, with the next most important contribution coming from nickel sulfate production for mixed metal oxide cathodes. Furthermore, the manufacturing of next-generation LIBs is estimated to have a slightly increased impact intensity on a per battery pack basis, with the increased nominal energy capacity effectively reducing the impacts on a per kW h basis. The use of LIBs in China primarily affects the GWP, as a result of the high coal intensity of the local electricity mix. References Amarakoon, S., Smith, J., Segal, B., 2013. Application of life-cycle assessment to nanoscale technology: Lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles. No. EPA 744-R-12-001. Ellingsen, L.A.W., Majeau-Bettez, G., Singh, B., Srivastava, A.K., Valøen, L.O., Strømman, A.H., 2014. Life Cycle Assessment of a Lithium-Ion Battery Vehicle Pack. J. Ind. Ecol. 18, 113–124. Hao, H., Mu, Z., Jiang, S., Liu, Z., Zhao, F., 2017. GHG Emissions from the production of lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles in China. Sustain. 9. Kim, H.C., Wallington, T.J., Arsenault, R., Bae, C., Ahn, S., Lee, J., 2016. Cradle-to-Gate Emissions from a Commercial Electric Vehicle Li-Ion Battery: A Comparative Analysis. Environ. Sci. Technol. 50, 7715–7722. Majeau-Bettez, G., Hawkins, T.R., StrØmman, A.H., 2011. Life cycle environmental assessment of lithium-ion and nickel metal hydride batteries for plug-in hybrid and battery electric vehicles. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 4548–4554. Yu, A., Wei, Y., Chen, W., Peng, N., Peng, L., 2018. Life cycle environmental impacts and carbon emissions: A case study of electric and gasoline vehicles in China. Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. 65, 409–420. Figure 1

Electric vehicles are often considered one of the best ways to decarbonize transportation within the United States. This report reviews the battery electric vehicle adoption literature, focusing on the drivers and barriers to adoption. The first section outlines critical trends in battery electric vehicle adoption and background information about the market for electric vehicles in the United States. The second section focuses on the drivers and barriers to adoption of battery electric vehicles with emphasis on drivers and barriers relevant to the battery of a battery electric vehicle. The third section then details additional technical papers on the batteries of electric battery vehicles, including options for the end of use of the battery. The battery of an electric vehicle is one of the most expensive components, and the technology in batteries is evolving quickly, so we focus our review on papers related to the batteries of battery electric vehicles.

Significance The poorly publicised law provides for an entirely new visa system, focused on streamlining guest-worker and skilled worker permits from third countries. It addresses an accumulated skills gap that will intensify as investments in electric vehicle (EV) battery manufacturing and defence flood in. The wider region is suffering tight labour markets, talent outflows, lacklustre education systems and ageing populations. Impacts That the new law was enacted nine months ahead of schedule suggests the urgency of supplying skilled workers for new industrial plants. Early enactment may give Budapest an edge over its Visegrad Four neighbours, especially Slovakia and Czechia. This may help in cementing Hungary’s position as Central Europe’s EV battery and defence manufacturing hub.

This paper delves into the dynamics of the Chinese electric vehicle (EV) battery market, providing an overview of its current status, recent developments, domestic policies, and industry competitiveness. Anticipated to witness substantial growth in the future, the global electric vehicle battery industry market is a focal point of analysis. A critical examination is conducted on the challenges facing the Chinese government concerning EV battery recycling and manufacturing pollution, accompanied by recommendations for addressing these issues. Additionally, a comparative analysis is presented, spotlighting prominent Chinese companies such as CATL and BYD, which play pivotal roles as leading suppliers in the global EV battery industry. Their contributions to industry advancement and technological progress are thoroughly evaluated. Furthermore, the paper scrutinizes the current landscape of the Chinese EV battery market, focusing on two primary battery types: lithium iron phosphate and ternary lithium-ion batteries. Insights gleaned from this analysis provide valuable guidance for policymakers and industry stakeholders, informing future policy considerations and shaping the trajectory of the EV battery industry in China and beyond. By offering a comprehensive examination of the Chinese EV battery market, this study serves as a valuable resource for understanding the evolving dynamics of the industry and navigating its complexities. It underscores the importance of proactive measures to address challenges and capitalize on opportunities, ultimately driving sustainable growth and innovation in the EV battery sector.

Hybrid and electric vehicles (EVs) have become increasingly popular due to reduced gasoline consumption and significant environmental benefits. The majority of the functions of these vehicles rely on the battery power and batteries tend to degrade over time. Testing and maintenance of the batteries of these vehicles are essential. Thus, hybrid vehicle battery testers are utilized for this purpose. These testers are often expensive and come as a set of gadgets. In particular, the battery testers depend on, computers or mobile devices to display the results when needed. Therefore, the battery testers are getting expensive, and having several types of equipment makes the use of a tester a hassle. To solve these shortcomings, we developed a low-cost, portable hybrid vehicle tester that is custom-made for the Sri Lankan context, focusing on its ease of use and practicality. Our device can successfully detect weak cells present in hybrid and electric vehicle batteries by carefully calculating the discharging time of each of the cells. In addition to being compatible with a variety of hybrid and electric vehicle batteries, this lightweight tester is an inexpensive, self-supporting test tool that complies with sustainable vehicle maintenance processes. This paper discusses the current practice and the methods for hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) battery testing and their disadvantages. Furthermore, the development of the low-cost and portable battery tester as well as the main functions of the device are presented in detail. Finally, the results used for the verification of the developed device are presented and discussed.

Recycling and reuse in stationary energy storage (second use) are beneficial options to further utilize electric vehicle (EV) battery materials and residual capacities after end-of-life (EoL). In California, EV sales shares have steadily increased recently, and state policies to achieve 100% zero-emission vehicle sales by 2035 will further result in a rapidly growing number of EoL EV batteries. Based on modeling material flows and climate effects, in this study, EoL EV battery supply scenarios and the effect of recycling and second use on battery demand and saved greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are investigated on a regional level in California until 2050. The results indicate that stationary energy storage demands can be met by more than 100% by 2050 through the second use of EoL EV batteries. By contrast, recycling is expected to cover around 61% of the overall EV battery demand annually by 2050. Within system boundaries, the second use scenario, where EoL EV batteries are prioritized to be further used in stationary storage applications, shows potential cumulative GHG emission savings of about 55.8 MtCO2eq through the avoidance of battery production for stationary energy storage. Recycling of all EoL EV batteries results in GHG emission savings of about 48.3 MtCO2eq until 2050, driven by the replacement of primary raw materials in battery production. Finally, a comprehensive sensitivity analysis shows that adapting several model parameters, such as remanufacturing emissions, EV sales, battery lifetimes, and applied recycling processes, can have a substantial impact on the EoL EV battery supply and GHG emission savings by 2050.

Nanotechnology has increased electric vehicle (EV) battery production, efficiency and use. Nanotechnology is explored in this electric car battery illustration. Nanoscale materials and topologies research has increased battery energy density, charge time and cycle life. Nanotubes, graphene and metal oxides improve energy storage, flow and charging/discharge. Solid-state and lithium-air high-energy batteries are safer, more energy dense and more stable using nanoscale catalysts. Nanotechnology improves battery parts. Nanostructured fluids reduce lithium dendrite, improving batteries. Nanocoating electrodes may reduce damage and extend battery life. Nanotechnology benefits the planet. Nanomaterials allow battery parts to employ ordinary, safe materials instead of rare, harmful ones. Nanotechnology promotes battery recycling, reducing waste. Change does not influence stable, cost-effective or scalable items. Business opportunities for nanotechnology-based EV batteries need more research. High-performance, robust and environmentally friendly batteries might make electric cars more popular and transportation more sustainable with research and development. An outline of EV battery nanotechnology researchexamines the publication patterns, notable articles, collaborators and contributions. This issue was researched extensively, indicating interest. Research focuses on anode materials, energy storage and battery performance. A research landscape assessment demonstrates EV battery nanotechnology’s growth and future. A comprehensive literature review examined nanosensors in EVs. Our study provides a solid foundation for understanding the current state of research, identifying major trends and discovering nanotechnology breakthroughs in EV sensors by carefully reviewing, characterizing and rating important papers.

Electromobility is associated with the ever faster development and introduction of new electric vehicles to the market. These vehicles use an electric motor to drive the wheels of the vehicle and the necessary electrical energy is stored in traction batteries. Electric vehicles have a different construction method than traditional vehicles powered by internal combustion engines. For this reason, they are used, maintained and serviced differently. Becoming more familiar with selected operational issues of electric vehicles positively affects the reliability of their use as well as the safety and comfort of driving them. One important component of electric vehicles is the traction battery. Its proper operation influences the long-term preservation of the initial energy capacity and thus the range of the vehicle. The article presents test results concerning the state of traction batteries of a small electrically powered city vehicle. The vehicle, the batteries used and the diagnostic devices used to assess the condition of the battery are all described in detail. Based on literature analysis and the observation of market trends, a fast and effective method of assessment of the technical condition of batteries in electric vehicles was proposed. The method was tested on the selected vehicle. The technical condition of the battery in the vehicle was assessed after 30,000 km and 4.5 years of operation.

Electric Vehicle (EV) battery manufactures are under pressure to ensure their products are safe and not prone to undetectable heat after an impact, which could lead to thermal runaway. Constant monitoring of the battery’s behaviour and, in particular, heat generation is therefore important for the safety of the vehicle and the occupant. An aim of this research is to use a series of battery models to study the charge/discharge and thermal behaviour of EV lithium ion batteries under normal and damaged conditions through modelling and physical/electrical testing. An equivalent circuit model is identified and tested to determine the electrical behaviour of the batteries and a 2 degree of freedom (DOF) model is discussed for the plastic deformational behaviour of the battery compartment as the result of an impact. The ultimate goal of this work is to develop a new model integrating physical, chemical, thermal and electrical behaviour to improve safety.

A system dynamics model for end-of-life management of electric vehicle batteries in the US: Comparing the cost, carbon, and material requirements of remanufacturing and recycling

A Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) quantifies the environmental impacts during the life of a product from cradle to grave. It evaluates energy use, material flow, and emissions at each stage of life. This report addresses the challenges and potential solutions related to the surge in electric vehicle (EV) batteries in the United States amidst the EV market’s exponential growth. It focuses on the environmental and economic implications of disposal as well as the recycling of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). With millions of EVs sold in the past decade, this research highlights the necessity of efficient recycling methods to mitigate environmental damage from battery production and disposal. Utilizing a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Life Cycle Cost Assessment (LCCA), this research compares emissions and costs between new and recycled batteries by employing software tools such as SimaPro V7 and GREET V2. The findings indicate that recycling batteries produces a significantly lower environmental impact than manufacturing new units from new materials and is economically viable as well. This research also emphasizes the importance of preparing for the upcoming influx of used EV batteries and provides suggestions for future research to optimize the disposal and recycling of EV batteries.

Repurposed electric vehicle battery performance in second-life electricity grid frequency regulation service

An optimization framework of electric vehicle (EV) batteries for product eco-design