Abstract
In recent years, bone tissue engineering has emerged as a promising solution to the limitations of current gold standard treatment options for bone related-disorders such as bone grafts. Bone tissue engineering provides a scaffold design that mimics the extracellular matrix, providing an architecture that guides the natural bone regeneration process. During this period, a new generation of bone tissue engineering scaffolds has been designed and characterized that explores the incorporation of signaling molecules in order to enhance cell recruitment and ingress into the scaffold, as well as osteogenic differentiation and angiogenesis, each of which is crucial to successful bone regeneration. Here, we outline and critically analyze key characteristics of successful bone tissue engineering scaffolds. We also explore candidate materials used to fabricate these scaffolds. Different growth factors involved in the highly coordinated process of bone repair are discussed, and the key requirements of a growth factor delivery system are described. Finally, we concentrate on an analysis of scaffold-based growth factor delivery strategies found in the recent literature. In particular, the incorporation of two-phase systems consisting of growth factor-loaded nanoparticles embedded into scaffolds shows great promise, both by providing sustained release over a therapeutically relevant timeframe and the potential to sequentially deliver multiple growth factors.
Highlights
Bone acts as the supportive structure of the body, functions as a mineral reservoir, guards vital organs, is the site of blood cell production and helps maintain acid–base balance in the body [1]
A new generation of bone tissue engineering scaffolds has been designed and characterized that explores the incorporation of signaling molecules in order to enhance cell recruitment and ingress into the scaffold, as well as osteogenic differentiation and angiogenesis, each of which is crucial to successful bone regeneration
We evaluate the different growth factors (GFs) involved in bone regeneration and explore the different scaffold-based GF delivery approaches found in the recent literature
Summary
Bone acts as the supportive structure of the body, functions as a mineral reservoir, guards vital organs, is the site of blood cell production and helps maintain acid–base balance in the body [1]. The importance of bone is reflected by the staggering economic and clinical impact of bone defect treatment as a result of diseases such as osteogenesis imperfecta, osteoarthritis, osteomyelitis and osteoporosis [2]. The ageing population paired with an increase in obesity and poor physical activity has led to an increase in the occurrence of bone disorders that include bone fractures, low back pain, scoliosis, osteoporosis, bone infection, tumors and rheumatic diseases [3, 4]. More than 20 million people annually worldwide are affected by a loss of bone tissue caused by trauma or disease [5], and in the USA alone, over half a million bone defect repairs occur annually representing over $2.5 billion in costs [3].
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