Abstract
Arthropod herbivory induces plant volatiles that can be used by natural enemies of the herbivores to find their prey. This has been studied mainly for arthropods that prey upon or parasitise herbivorous arthropods but rarely for insectivorous birds, one of the main groups of predators of herbivorous insects such as lepidopteran larvae. Here, we show that great tits (Parus major) discriminate between caterpillar-infested and uninfested trees. Birds were attracted to infested trees, even when they could not see the larvae or their feeding damage. We furthermore show that infested and uninfested trees differ in volatile emissions and visual characteristics. Finally, we show, for the first time, that birds smell which tree is infested with their prey based on differences in volatile profiles emitted by infested and uninfested trees. Volatiles emitted by plants in response to herbivory by lepidopteran larvae thus not only attract predatory insects but also vertebrate predators.
Highlights
Among the most exciting interspecific relationships mediated by chemical cues are multitrophic interactions involving plants, herbivorous arthropods and carnivorous arthropods
We examined whether great tits were attracted to (1) chemical cues, (2) visual cues, (3) chemical & visual cues of apple trees infested with lepidopteran larvae, from which damaged parts of leaves and the larvae themselves had been removed just prior to the experiment
Our results show that great tits exploit herbivore-induced plant volatiles to locate herbivorous prey
Summary
Among the most exciting interspecific relationships mediated by chemical cues are multitrophic interactions involving plants, herbivorous arthropods and carnivorous arthropods. Predation of winter moths by great tits has been found to decrease herbivore damage to trees (Mols & Visser 2002; Van Bael et al 2003; M€antyl€a et al 2011). This leads to increased growth and reduced mortality of the trees (Marquis & Whelan 1994; Sipura 1999; M€antyl€a et al 2011). We present experiments aimed to elucidate whether birds are attracted to trees infested by herbivorous prey and to explore the mechanism underlying such attraction in the system: great tits – winter moths – apple trees
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