Biplot analysis of the genetic variation in the essential oil profile of Iranian landraces of Anethum graveolens

The performance of dill plant may be affected by adverse environments such as salinity. Thus, this research was designed to evaluate changes in chemical composition and antioxidant activity of seed essential oil of dill (Anethum graveolens L.) in response to salinity (0, 5, 10 and 15 dS/m) and 1 mM of each hormonal treatments (gibberellic acid, salicylic acid, and cytokinin). Salicylic acid (SA) reduced Na+ content of roots and leaves by 15.4%, 30.9% and 12.4%, 24.3%, but enhanced K+ content by 29.8%, 51.6% and 76.6%, 73.4% under moderate and severe salinities, respectively. Essential oil yield was enhanced with progressing seed filling, despite decreasing essential oil percentage. Percentage of essential oil was increased under low and moderate salinities. Hormonal treatments, particularly SA enhanced seed mass and essential oil percentage, leading to enhanced essential oil yield. The amounts of most constituents were enhanced under moderate salinity. Foliar spray of SA and CK (cytokinin) increased almost all essential oil components, except dill ether and dill apiole, while the GA3 (gibberellic acid) treatment reduced most of the constituents. The α-fenchol was only induced by salt stress. The β-pinene, 1-terpineol, cryptone, oxypeucedanin hydrate, α-thujene and P-α-dimethylstyrene were also specifically synthesized in SA treated plants under salinity. The highest TPC (total phenolic content) and antioxidant activity were recorded for essential oil of SA treated plants at mass maturity under moderate salinity. In general, the SA spray was the most effective treatment for improving essential oil quantity and quality of dill plants.

Objective: This study aimed to investigate the seasonal variations in the content and chemical composition of dill (Anethum graveolens) essential oils during spring, with a focus on how environmental factors shape their bioactive properties. Theoretical Framework: Essential oils from dill are widely recognized for their nutritional, therapeutic, and culinary benefits. Their biological activities are strongly influenced by the chemical profile, which in turn can be modified by seasonal and environmental conditions. Understanding these dynamics provides a foundation for optimizing essential oil production for food, health, and pharmaceutical applications. Method: Essential oils were extracted from dill harvested at three different times in the spring season. Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) was employed to identify and quantify the chemical constituents and to track compositional changes across harvests. Results and Discussion: The analysis showed notable shifts in the concentration of compounds such as α-phellandrene, β-phellandrene, dill ether, carvacrol, germacrene D, dill apiole, and phytol. Several of these components increased progressively in later harvests. The diversification of bioactive compounds was linked to changes in environmental factors, including rising temperature, longer daylight hours, and plant maturity. These conditions collectively enhanced the biosynthetic activity of dill, enriching the oils’ chemical complexity and potency. Research Implications: Identifying optimal harvest times enables producers to maximize both yield and bioactivity of dill oils, contributing to the development of functional foods, phytotherapeutics, and health-promoting products. Originality/Value: This research highlights seasonal timing as a critical determinant of essential oil quality. By connecting environmental drivers to phytochemical diversity, it provides practical insights for enhancing the nutritional and therapeutic value of dill essential oils.

Background Renewed interest in natural materials as food flavors and preservatives has led to the search for suitable essential oils. One factor that influences the essential oil content (%) is the extraction method used. Carum carvi (caraway), Anethum graveolens L. (anise), and Pimpinella anisum L. (dill) are well known plants from Apiaceae family widely spread in Egypt, where they have good climatic and soil conditions for high yield and good quality. Essential oil content is the main criteria for determining the quality of the fruits of these plant species. The aim of the study was to choose the best method for essential oil extraction. Objective The present research was conducted to evaluate the possible impacts of two types of distillation methods − hydrodistillation and hydro-steam distillation on essential oil content (%) and its main constituents of caraway, anise, and dill fruits. Materials and methods Seeds of the three species were subjected to two types of distillation methods − hydrodistillation and hydro-steam distillation. The essential oil content (%) of the three plants were determined and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analyses was carried out to identify the chemical constituents of the oil samples and their percentage were calculated in order to clear the effect of the two extraction methods applied. Results and conclusion It was established that while hydrodistillation gave higher essential oil yields for caraway and dill seeds (3.14 and 2.36%, respectively), hydro-steam distillation gave the maximum mean values of essential oil content of anise seeds (0.76%). The maximum values of the main components such as carvone (54.45%), transanethole (98.97%), and carvone (57.71%) were obtained as a result of hydrodistillation method for caraway, dill, and anise seeds, respectively.

Anethum graveolens L. is a vegetable-aromatic medicinal herb of Apiaceae family and cultivated in different parts of the world including Iran. The aim of this study was to study the chemical composition of essential oils in four Iranian dill ecotypes. The extracted essential oils compositions were different in the ecotypes so that 38, 27, 25, and 24 volatile constituents were identified in Ardabil, Isfahan, Mashhad, and Kerman ecotypes, respectively. Eighteen compounds such as Toluene, α-thujene, camphene, sabinene, β-pinene, β-myrcene, α-phellandrene, α-terpinene, β-phellandrene, undecane, sabinol, dill ether, carvacrol, germacrene D, dill apiole, neophytadiene, hexahydrofarnesyl acetone, and phytol were recognized in all ecotypes but in different amounts. Analysis of variance showed the significancy of α-thujene, β-pinene, β-myrcene, α-phellandrene, β-phellandrene, undecane, dill ether, sabinol, germacrene D, dill apiole, neophytadiene, and hexahydrofarnesyl acetone at 0.001 probability levels. Means comparison of significant compounds showed highest mean values for β-pinene, undecane, germacrene D, neophytadiene, hexahydrofarnesyl acetone, and phytol in Ardabil ecotype; α-thujene, β-myrcene, β-phellandrene, and dill ether in Mashhad ecotype; and α-phellandrene, sabinol, and dill apiole in Kerman ecotype. Factor analysis indicated that three main and independent factors accounted for 100% of the total variance. The first, second, and third factors with 47.5, 31.9, and 20.63 % of variance included 9, 6, and 4 compounds, respectively. The knowledge of essential oil compositions of the studied ecotypes could be useful to choose the appropriate for breeding purposes based on phytochemical diversity or for use in pharmaceutical and food industries for extraction of special compounds.

Aims: This experiment was carried out to study the effects of soil type and seasonal variation on growth, yield, essential oil and artemisinin content of Artemisia annua plant. Methods: Two field experiments were carried out during two successive seasons in two different types of soil, loamy clay soil and sandy loam soil. Artemisia seeds were cultivated in nursery plots at 15th December then transplanted at age of 90 days in a distance of 60cm in apart and 50cm in between plants under organic system then plant samples were collected every 30 days through growth season. Results: Significant increases in vegetative growth characters were observed for plants cultivated in clay loamy soil comparing to those cultivated in sand loamy soil. The plant essential oil percentage of those cultivated in sand loamy soil were increase more than those cultivated in clay loamy soil while essential oil yield of plants grown in clay loamy soil was more than those grown in sand loamy soil. Essential oil % of A. annua aerial parts in the two soils increased with increasing plant age to reach its maximum values at full flowering stage then this tended to decrease towards the end of plant life. The major compound in the essential oil was found to be artemisia ketone followed by 1,8 cineole in both soils. A change in the order of the followed compounds according to the soil type was observed. Artemisinin % and artemisinin yield (kg/fed) of plants cultivated in sand loamy soil was increased in comparing to plants cultivated in clay soil and showed the maximum values of artemisinin % at the flowering stage in August in both types of soil. Conclusion: Cultivation of A. annua in sandy loam soil resulted in increasing essential oil percentage whereas clay loam soil increased oil yield as it increased all vegetative parameters. Artemisia ketone and 1,8 cineole are major compounds in essential oil and their percentage in essential oil for sandy loam soil plants were more than of clay loam plants.

BackgroundIn sustainable agriculture, the use of farmyard manure (FYM) is of great interest to environmental security and is effective as a good nitrogen source for sustainable crop production. Therefore, determining the effective doses of FYM that will be an alternative to chemical fertilizers, is also important to improve soil fertility and produce healthy products. This study aimed to determine the effects of FYM and ammonium nitrate (AN) fertilizers on the biological value and essential oil content of dill (Anethum graveolens L.).MethodsDifferent doses FYM (7.5, 10, 12.5 and 15 t ha−1) and AN (30, 60, 90 and 120 kg ha−1) were applied by sowing and compared to a control group (no manure). We evaluated the chemical constituents as well as the biological activities of dill herbs and seeds growing at various doses of FYM and AN fertilizers.ResultsThe most abundant components of essential oils were found to be dill apiole (11.96 ± 0.83 and 18.65 ± 1.89%) and carvotanacetone (15.90 ± 2.34 and 21.76 ± 1.62%) in the leaves and seeds, respectively. Limonene (9.01 ± 1.11%), 4-isopropyltoluen (8.24 ± 0.89%), dill ether (9.13 ± 1.12%) and mycrene (7.44 ± 0.68%) were major essential oils components in herbs. The highest concentration of the essential oil components was determined as 12.5–15 t ha−1 in FYM and 90 AN applications. From the effective concentration (EC50) of the samples, it was seen that 60 kg ha−1 AN infusion, 120 kg ha−1 AN decoction as well as 7.5 t ha−1 FYM and 10 t ha−1 FYM essential oils had the highest DPPH, ABTS+ and superoxide anion radical scavenging activity as shown by the lowest value of EC50 compared to the control. Although the antioxidant activities of the samples were significantly lower than those of the reference antioxidant gallic acid, it was evident that they did show the antioxidative potential for hydrogen and a single electron donor activities, thus could serve as free radical scavengers, and act as reductant. In particular, the highest total phenolic content (18.36 ± 0.35 mg g−1) was found in the infusion extract after applying the 60 kg ha−1 AN fertilizer. Essential oils extracted from the seeds also exhibited strong antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus epidermidis, Enterococcus faecalis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The highest antibacterial activity against all tested microbial species was observed with the 10 t ha−1 FYM application.ConclusionThe findings of the study suggest that the application of FYM has promising effects on dill leaf, seed, and herb and can be considered as a suitable substitute for chemical fertilizers when growing dill, a plant with increasing importance and demand.

Parsley (Petroselinum crispum), dill (Anethum graveolens) and celery (Apium graveolens), three aromatic plants belonging to the Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) botanical family, were selected as sources of essential or volatile oils. Essential oils are composed of a large diversity of volatile aroma compounds. Plant-derived essential oils and extracts have long been used as natural agents in food preservation, pharmaceuticals and medicinal therapies. In the present study, the plant extracts from leaves of parsley, dill and celery, were obtained by maceration, ultrasound-assisted extraction and microwave-assisted extraction. All extractions were performed at 30°C, using different solvents (ethanol, diethyl ether, n-hexane) and solvent mixtures (1:1, v/v). The most effective solvent system for the extraction of volatile aroma compounds was diethyl ether - n-hexane (1:1, v/v). Extraction efficiency and determination of aroma volatiles were performed by GC-FID and GC-MS, respectively. The major volatile compounds present in plant extracts were myristicin, α-phellandrene, β-phellandrene, 1,3,8-p-menthatriene, apiol, dill ether and allyl phenoxyacetate.

Anethum graveolens commonly known as dill plant is a very important shrub which is widely acknowledged in traditional and modern medicine for its capacity to treat colic pain and flatulence. The purpose of this work is the study of the chemical composition and the evaluation of antibacterial, antifungal and antioxidant activities of A. graveolens essential oil. The samples were collected from the chellal region in Algeria and submitted to hydrodistillation. The essential oil extracted was analyzed by GC and GC/MS. The antibacterial and antifungal activities were tested by the disc diffusion method; seven bacteria and four phytopathogenic fungi were used. The evaluation of the antioxidant activity was carried out by the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl scavenging method. The results of the GC and GC/MS analysis allowed the identification of 22 components with carvone(34.33%), α-phellendrene (22.03%), dill ether (18.84%), limonene (6.93%) and dill apiol (5.01%) as major components. The results of the disc difusion method show that Anethum graveolens essential oil exhibits strong antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and moderate antifungal activity against Fusarium graminum and Alternaria alternata. The pure essential oil showed a moderate antioxidant activity with inhibition percentages of 49.93 ± 4.58%. This study highlights the importance of chemical constituents of A. graveolens essential oil which possesses important pharmacological effects on different pathogenic strains and could be used as substitute for synthetic antimicrobial drugs in pharmaceutical industries.

The main objective of this study was to determine the effects of vermicompost and nitrogen fixing bacteria on the quantity and quality of essential oil in dill essential oil content in seed, essential oil yield and carvone content, limonene content and dillapiole content in essential oil. The experiment was carried out at the Hamand Research Station of Damavand in 2011. Vermicompost (0, 4, 8 and 12 ton/ha) and nitrogen fixing bacteria, mixture of Azotobacter chroococcum and Azospirillum lipoferum (non-inoculated, inoculated seeds and inoculated seeds + spray on the plant base at stem elongation stage) were used as the effecting parameters. The present results have shown that the highest essential oil content in seed and carvone content in essential oil and the minimum dillapiole content in essential oil were obtained after applying 4 ton/ha vermicompost. The maximum essential oil yield was obtained after applying 8 ton/ha vermicompost. Nitrogen fixing bacteria also showed significant effects on essential oil content, essential oil yield and carvone content in essential oil. The maximum essential oil content and carvone content were obtained by using the nitrogen fixing bacteria once. The highest essential oil yield was obtained by using the nitrogen fixing bacteria twice. Key words: Dill, vermicompost, Azotobacter, Azospirillum, essential oil.

Changes in the essential oil yield and composition of dill (Anethum graveolens L.) as response to arbuscular mycorrhiza colonization and cropping system

To contribute to the search for effective substances in pest control, this study describes the fumigant and contact toxicity against Tribolium castaneum and Sitophilus zeamais of four essential oils (EOs) and some of their major chemical constituents. The EOs from Tagetes zypaquirensis, Anethum graveolens, Satureja viminea and Minthostachys mollis were obtained by steam distillation and chemically characterized using GC-MS. In the development of research, some monoterpenoids were isolated from the EOs, others were purchased commercially, and some were synthesized from the most active monoterpenoids present in EOs. The main components in the EOs were dill ether (28.56%), α-phellandrene (25.78%) and carvone (23.67%) for A. graveolens, piperitone oxide (30.40%) and pulegone (25.91%) in M. mollis, pulegone (37.40%) and p-menth-3-en-8-ol (11.83%) for S. viminea, and dihydrotagetone (32.13%), myrcene epoxide (19.64%) and β-myrcene (5.30%) for T. zypaquirensis. The results highlight the fumigant action (LC50) and contact toxicity (LD50) of EO from M. mollis against T. castaneum (LC50 of 4.8 µL/L air and LD50 of 6.5 µg/insect) and S. zeamais (LC50 of 7.0 µL/L air and LD50 of 5.81 µg/insect). Among the chemical constituents evaluated, R-carvone 2, piperitone oxide 5 and R-pulegone 6 stand out for their insecticidal potential against S. zeamais (LC50 between 3.0 and 42.4 µL/L, while LD50 between 14.9 and 24.6 µg/insect) and T. castaneum (LC50 between 2.2 and 4.8 µL/L, while LD50 between 4.8 and 13.1 µg/insect). Preliminary structure-activity analysis suggests that the presence of the carbonyl group with conjugated double bonds in cyclic monoterpenes is important for the insecticidal potential exhibited.

در این تحقیق اثر ضد میکروبی اسانس حاصل از بذر های شوید و گشنیز برروی سه م یکرو ارگانیسم بیماری زای غذایی یعنی و سالمونلا تیفی موریو م( 14028 (ATCC 35218) O157:H اشرشیاکلی ( 7 ، ( PTCC استافیلوکوکوس اورئو س( 1431 این اسانس ها نیز تعیین گردید. (MBC) و کمترین غلظت کشنده (MIC) بررسی شد و میزان ک مترین غلظت بازدارنده (ATCC 125،500،1000،2000،4000,250 انتخاب گردید . جهت کشت ppm برای این منظور 6 سطح غلظت از هر اسانس شامل میکروبی از آزمایش حساسیت رقت در محیط مایع و محیط های کشت مولر هینتون آگار و براث استفاده شد. نتایج نشان داد که مقاوم ترین باکتری به هر دو اسانس بودند. اسانس Salmonella.typhimurium حساسترین و Staphylococcus.aureus و MIC بذر گشنیز نسبت به اسانس بذر شوید بازدارندگی بیشتری بر باکتری های گرم منفی داشت . اسانس بذر گشنیز دارای 500 و کمترین غلظت ppm معادل (MIC) 1000 و اسانس بذر شوید دارای کمترین غلظت بازدارنده ppm برابر با MBC بود . در مورد سالمونلا اسانس ه ا در Staphylococcus.aureus 1000 در مقابل باکتری ppm برابر با (MBC) باکتری کش ی هیچ یک از غلطت ها اثر بازدارندگی نشان ندارند. اسانس بذر شوید، اسانس بذر گشنیز ،MBC ، MIC ، کلمات کلیدی: آزمایش حساسیت رقت در محیط مایع 1

Transformed roots of Anethum graveolens were obtained after inoculation of aseptically grown seedlings with wild type Agrobacterium rhizogenes ATCC 15834. Comparisons were made between the essential oils, analysed by GC and GC-MS, from the hairy roots, in vitro shoot cultures, fruits and from roots and aerial parts of the parent plant. The main components of the essential oils from the fruits were carvone, dill apiole and limonene, whereas dill ether and p-cymene were the major components of the oils from the aerial parts. Dill apiole and α-phellandrene were the main constituents of the oil from the in vitro shoot cultures, while dill apiole, apiole, myristicin and falcarinol were the main constituents of the oils isolated from hairy root cultures and roots of the parent plant. Quantitative but not qualitative differences were found between the essential oils from the roots of parent plant and those from the hairy root cultures. The essential oil yield of hairy root cultures was higher than that of the roots of the parent plant based on fresh weight calculation.

Dill (Anethum graveolens L.), a medicinal-vegetable plant renowned for its aromatic and functional properties, exhibits significant variation in essential oil composition due to geographical origin (genotypic diversity) and post-harvest drying temperatures (DTs). This study aimed to (1) quantify the effects of geographical origin (as a proxy for genotype) and DTs on essential oil yield and composition, and (2) evaluate how specific genotypes respond to thermal processing. Six A. graveolens genotypes from distinct Iranian regions (Mashhad, Ardabil, Parsabad, Bushehr, Esfahan, and Kerman) were cultivated under uniform field conditions in Ardabil, Iran, to isolate genotypic variation. Post-harvest treatments included environmental shade drying and oven drying at 40°C and 60°C, creating unique combinations of genotype-treatment (CGT). Using CGT × character biplot analysis, we assessed interactions between genotype, DT, and essential oil compositions. The results revealed significant CGT-driven variation: shade drying enhanced α-Phellandrene levels in Kerman and Esfahan genotypes (57.49% and 55.51%), while oven drying at 40°C maximized Myristicin content (1.72%) in the Ardabil genotype and essential oil yield in Parsabad (1.86% w/v). High-temperature drying (60°C) reduced essential oil content in sensitive genotypes. β-Pinene and γ-Terpinene emerged as discriminative markers for genotype performance. Critically, the Parsabad genotype at 40°C and the Ardabil genotype demonstrated superior essential oil yields, whereas genotype-specific responses to DT highlighted the need for tailored post-harvest protocols. This study establishes CGT interactions as pivotal drivers of A. graveolens essential oil chemotypes, offering actionable strategies for genotype-specific drying protocols to optimize industrial production and breeding programs.

This study estimated the preservative potential of Dill essential oil (DEO, Anethum graveolens) in terms of the quality and shelf life of Pangasius bocourti (basa fish) fillets during cold storage. GC-MS analysis of DEO's chemical composition identified monoterpenes, including α-phellandrene (21.81%), d-limonene (18.54%), carvone (17.42%), and Dill ether (14.82%). DEO showed concentration-dependent antioxidant properties in the DPPH assay, with an IC50 of 48.3 ± 0.9 µg/mL (mean ± SE). Its antibacterial efficacy against various foodborne pathogens was evaluated using the resazurin turbidimetric microdilution method. Fish fillets were treated with DEO at 200, 2000, and 4000 ppm, and compared to the untreated control and 200 ppm butylhydroxytoluene (BHT)-treated groups. Physicochemical parameters, microbial growth, and sensory characteristics were assessed over a 15-day period at 2.5 °C ± 0.5 °C. Higher concentrations of DEO effectively preserved the pH, water-holding capacity, and color stability of the fillets. Microbial analysis showed that DEO, particularly at 4000 ppm, significantly inhibited the growth of aerobic bacteria, lactic acid bacteria, coliforms, and staphylococci compared with the control. Sensory evaluation revealed that DEO treatment, especially at 4000 ppm, maintained the odor, color, texture, and overall acceptability of fish fillets throughout storage. These results suggest that Anethum graveolens L. essential oil can serve as an effective natural preservative to enhance the quality and prolong the shelf life of refrigerated fish fillets.