Biology, ecology, and pest management of the red sunflower seed weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Chemical and biological control are regarded as two main methods of suppressing insects and spider mites. These two methods are often thought of as alternatives in pest control. This is not necessarily so, for with adequate knowledge they can be made to augment one another. Biological control is part of the permanent natural control of population density. Chemical controls involve only immediate and temporary decimation of localized populations and do not contribute to natural control. Natural control may keep a pest species from ever reaching the economic-injury level or it may permit economic outbreaks. The frequency of these pest outbreaks varies from a regular to an occasional occurrence depending upon the level of the general equilibrium position in relation to the economic injury level and the types of fluctuations about the general equilibrium position. Integrated control combines and integrates biological and chemical controls. Chemical control is used as necessary and in a manner which is least disruptive to biological control. Integrated control may make use of naturally occurring biological control as well as modified or introduced biological control. Thought must be given to the biological control of not only the primary pest under consideration but also other potential pests. Integrated control is most successful when sound economic thresholds have been established, rapid sampling methods have been devised, and selective insecticides are available. In some situations, the development of integrated control requires the augmentation of biological control through the introduction of additional natural enemies or modification of the environment. Integrated control of the spotted alfalfa aphid has been achieved in California. Economic thresholds were established so that insecticides are applied only when damage is imminent. Native predators, introduced parasites, and entomogenous fungi now keep the spotted-alfalfa-aphid populations below the economic threshold for most of the year. When population counts in the individual field clearly demonstrate that a field is threatened, Systox is applied at low dosages. These chemical treatments give adequate control, but do not necessarily eradicate the aphids. Most of the predators and parasites survive and persist on the remaining aphids.

Chemical and biological control are regarded as two main methods of suppressing insects and spider mites. These two methods are often thought of as alternatives in pest control. This is not necessarily so, for with adequate knowledge they can be made to augment one another. Biological control is part of the permanent natural control of population density. Chemical controls involve only immediate and temporary decimation of localized populations and do not contribute to natural control. Natural control may keep a pest species from ever reaching the economic-injury level or it may permit economic outbreaks. The frequency of these pest outbreaks varies from a regular to an occasional occurrence depending upon the level of the general equilibrium position in relation to the economic injury level and the types of fluctuations about the general equilibrium position. Integrated control combines and integrates biological and chemical controls. Chemical control is used as necessary and in a manner which is least disruptive to biological control. Integrated control may make use of naturally occurring biological control as well as modified or introduced biological control. Thought must be given to the biological control of not only the primary pest under consideration but also other potential pests. Integrated control is most successful when sound economic thresholds have been established, rapid sampling methods have been devised, and selective insecticides are available. In some situations, the development of integrated control requires the augmentation of biological control through the introduction of additional natural enemies or modification of the environment. Integrated control of the spotted alfalfa aphid has been achieved in California. Economic thresholds were established so that insecticides are applied only when damage is imminent. Native predators, introduced parasites, and entomogenous fungi now keep the spotted-alfalfa-aphid populations below the economic threshold for most of the year. When population counts in the individual field clearly demonstrate that a field is threatened, Systox is applied at low dosages. These chemical treatments give adequate control, but do not necessarily eradicate the aphids. Most of the predators and parasites survive and persist on the remaining aphids.

This chapter introduces the concepts and potential of integrated pest management (IPM), pointing out that it originated in California with work on aphids, and the IPM case studies in the succeeding chapters. It defines IPM as the use of multiple control measures, states the golden rules of IPM, and discusses the interactions between chemical and biological control, between chemical control and host plant resistance, between biological control and host plant resistance, between cultural control and biological control and the three-way interaction between chemical control, host plant resistance and biological control.

Chemical and biological control are regarded as two main methods of suppressing insects and spider mites. These two methods are often thought of as alternatives in pest control. This is not necessarily so, for with adequate knowledge they can be made to augment one another. Biological control is part of the permanent natural control of population density. Chemical controls involve only immediate and temporary decimation of localized populations and do not contribute to natural control. Natural control may keep a pest species from ever reaching the economic-injury level or it may permit economic outbreaks. The frequency of these pest outbreaks varies from a regular to an occasional occurrence depending upon the level of the general equilibrium position in relation to the economic injury level and the types of fluctuations about the general equilibrium position. Integrated control combines and integrates biological and chemical controls. Chemical control is used as necessary and in a manner which is least disruptive to biological control. Integrated control may make use of naturally occurring biological control as well as modified or introduced biological control. Thought must be given to the biological control of not only the primary pest under consideration but also other potential pests. Integrated control is most successful when sound economic thresholds have been established, rapid sampling methods have been devised, and selective insecticides are available. In some situations, the development of integrated control requires the augmentation of biological control through the introduction of additional natural enemies or modification of the environment. Integrated control of the spotted alfalfa aphid has been achieved in California. Economic thresholds were established so that insecticides are applied only when damage is imminent. Native predators, introduced parasites, and entomogenous fungi now keep the spotted-alfalfa-aphid populations below the economic threshold for most of the year. When population counts in the individual field clearly demonstrate that a field is threatened, Systox is applied at low dosages. These chemical treatments give adequate control, but do not necessarily eradicate the aphids. Most of the predators and parasites survive and persist on the remaining aphids.

Abstract1. Gypsy moth outbreaks cause severe defoliation in Holarctic forests, both in North America where it is invasive, and in its native range in Eurasia. Defoliation can hamper timber production and impact ecological communities and processes. Aerial insecticide applications are regularly performed in outbreak areas to mitigate economic losses. These operations can be financially costly and harmful to non‐target species and may disrupt species interaction networks. However, replicated studies of the relative impacts of gypsy moth outbreaks and insecticide application on forest growth and animal communities are rare and have yet to be carried out in the species' indigenous range.2. Here, we review the pathways in which gypsy moth outbreaks and the chemical control of these outbreaks affect forest ecosystems. We then present an experimental design established in South Central Germany in early 2019, aiming to study the ecological and economic consequences of gypsy moth eruptions and insecticide application in oak forests. The study's full factorial design comprises forest stands at high and low defoliation risk, either treated with tebufenozide or left unsprayed, within 12 experimental blocks. Measurements of forest growth and structure, tree mortality, gypsy moth density, and composition of lepidopteran, bird, bat, ground beetle, and canopy arthropod communities will be conducted for several years.3. One‐year intensive monitoring of gypsy moth populations and damage across the selected sites showed substantial differences in population density between plots at high and low defoliation risk and high efficacy of tebufenozide in suppressing gypsy moth populations in treated plots. In the first year of the experiment, gypsy moth density and defoliation in predicted outbreak plots differed strongly, confirming the importance of using many replicates and blocking to control spatial heterogeneity. The experiment will be running continuously during the coming years to produce short‐ and medium‐term economic and ecological data to improve our understanding and management of gypsy moth outbreaks.

This chapter covers the development of integrated pest management (IPM), national IPM policy, IPM strategies used by farmers (trap cropping in combination with chemical and/or biological control in cabbage, tomato and maize; host plant resistance and chemical control; biological and cultural control; and plant extracts), examples of successful IPM implementation (sugarcane, cotton, Basmati rice, rape-mustard, and chickpea), funding and linkages of IPM programmes, research efforts on IPM, and major constraints in IPM implementation in India.

In Integrated Pest Management programs, insecticides are applied to agricultural crops when pest densities exceed a predetermined economic threshold. Under conditions of high natural enemy density, however, the economic threshold can be increased, allowing for fewer insecticide applications. These adjustments, called 'dynamic thresholds', allow farmers to exploit existing biological control interactions without economic loss. Further, the ability of natural enemies to disperse from, and subsequently immigrate into, insecticide-sprayed areas can affect their biological control potential. We develop a theoretical approach to incorporate both pest and natural enemy movement across field borders into dynamic thresholds and explore how these affect insecticide applications and farmer incomes. Our model follows a pest and its specialist natural enemy over one growing season. An insecticide that targets the pest also induces mortality of the natural enemy, both via direct toxicity and reduced resource pest densities. Pest and natural enemy populations recover after spraying through within-field reproduction and by immigration from neighboring unsprayed areas. The number of insecticide applications and per-season farmer revenues are calculated for economic thresholds that are either fixed (ignoring natural enemy densities) or dynamic (incorporating them). The model predicts that using dynamic thresholds always leads to reduced insecticide application. The benefit of dynamic thresholds in reducing insecticide use is highest when natural enemies rapidly recolonize sprayed areas, and when insecticide efficacy is low. We discuss real-life situations in which monitoring of natural enemies would substantially reduce insecticide use and other scenarios where the presence of beneficial organisms may lead to threshold modifications.

Since its first detection in 2017, the Fall Armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda J.E. Smith) has become one of the most damaging pests threatening Ethiopian maize output. This invasive pest presents considerable issues due to its quick spread, strong reproductive capacity, and adaptation to a variety of agroecological zones. The current study summarizes research findings from 2019 to 2025 on FAW distribution, epidemiology, economic impact, and management techniques in Ethiopia. FAW is currently found in all major maize-growing regions, with infection rates affected by climatic factors, cropping patterns, and agroecological conditions. Economically, FAW produces yield losses ranging from 20% to over 70%, with serious consequences for smallholder farmers' livelihoods and national food security. Cultural practices (early planting, crop rotation, intercropping), mechanical control (handpicking, trapping), biological control (parasites, predators), botanical insecticides (neem extracts), entomopathogens (fungal and bacterial agents), host plant resistance (the development of tolerant maize varieties), and chemical control (insecticide application) have all been investigated and implemented. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) techniques that combine these strategies have shown the greatest potential for long-term control. However, difficulties such as low farmer awareness, insufficient extension services, pesticide resistance, and a lack of bio-pesticide infrastructure impede effective management efforts. This analysis emphasizes the importance of increased research, farmer training, policy assistance, and multi-stakeholder collaboration in order to improve FAW control and safeguard Ethiopia's maize output. Adoption of IPM adapted to local contexts remains crucial for minimizing FAW consequences and preserving agricultural resilience in the face of this ongoing threat.

Fifty years ago, Stern et al. (1959) introduced the concept of “Integrated Control” during a time when insect pest control was mostly based on broad-spectrum, conventional insecticides such as organochlorines, organophosphates (OPs), and carbamates, all neurotoxic. Their work on economic thresholds and economic injury levels implemented within an ecological framework where chemical and biological controls could thrive together is the basis for the modern day Integrated Pest Management (IPM) concept. However, along the way, IPM’s overdependence on these broad-spectrum insecticides led to criticism that IPM was nothing more than Integrated Pesticide Management (e.g. Ehler 2006). Severe adverse effects of pesticides on the environment, problems of resistance reaching crisis proportions, and public protests have driven demand for alternative pest control tactics. With advances in the development of biorational pesticides and other selective chemistries, there is now real opportunity to realize the “Integrated Control” concept that Stern and colleagues (1959) pioneered. Today, more than ever, tools of physiology, toxicology, and biotechnology can help us realize the vision of more holistically harmonizing biological and chemical controls.

After its arrival in 2008, the Spotted Wing Drosophila (SWD), Drosophila suzukii, has emerged as a harmful invasive insect pest in North America and Europe. This highly polyphagous pest is a major threat to many economically important fruit crops and is also known to develop on a wide variety of natural host plants. In Asia, Europe and North America, different control measures are applied against SWD, such as chemical, biological, and cultural control. Current controls of SWD rely primarily on the application of insecticides, but cultural management tactics such as sanitation and the use of nets provide a good alternative in some crops. Biological control measures, such as conservation of existing natural enemies in invaded areas, introduction of specialized larval parasitoids from Asia for classical biological control and the use of indigenous parasitoids for augmentative control, are currently being investigated and may become an important management tool in the near future for an area-wide control of SWD.

Melanaphis sorghi is a serious economically important pest of sorghum, Sorghum bicolor (L.), across the southern USA. Therefore, developing and refining integrated strategies that provide effective control is key to the management of this pest. The current study examined the influence of nitrogen (N) fertilization, sorghum cultivar and insecticide applications on M. sorghi and grain sorghum yield at Tifton, Georgia (31.5120° N, 83.6434° W). Field trials with three insecticide treatments (untreated control, flupyradifurone in-furrow at 117 g/ha, and flupyradifurone foliar at 73 g/ha), three nitrogen fertilization rates (25, 50 and 100 kg/ha) and two sorghum cultivars (resistant: DKS37-07 and susceptible: DKS53-53) were conducted on grain sorghum in the spring/summer of 2022 and 2023. Compared to the medium N fertilization, Low and high N fertilization supported higher aphid density and severity of infestation (cumulative insect days [CID]) on both the susceptible and resistant cultivars for both 2022 and 2023. Aphid density and severity of infestation on the susceptible sorghum cultivar (DKS53-53) were 3.4–4.8-fold greater than on the resistant cultivar (DKS37-07) for both low and high N fertilization plots in 2022. While a single foliar and in-furrow insecticide application significantly reduced infestations below the economic threshold across all treatment combinations in 2022, aphid populations were too low to warrant foliar application in 2023. Nitrogen fertilization was associated with improved yield as the high N fertilization preserved yield for both sorghum cultivars. Compared to untreated plots, in-furrow and foliar insecticide applications supported greater grain sorghum yield across all insecticide treatments only in 2022. The study suggests that manipulating N fertilization, utilizing resistant sorghum cultivars and in-furrow and foliar insecticide application can synergistically suppress aphid infestations and improve grain yield in sorghum production in southern USA.

This chapter explores some examples and consequences of temperature interactions with pest management strategies such as chemical and biological control, host plant resistance, and the use of pheromones. The influence of temperature on biochemical reactions and resultant arthropod activity may either enhance or limit the effectiveness of integrated pest management (IPM). Central to the implementation of any IPM system is the concept of the economic injury level: the population density of a pest at which control measures must be undertaken to avoid economic losses. At extreme temperatures, arthropods and their host plants may be differentially stressed. Stability, vaporization, penetration, activity, and degradation of insecticides are all partly dependent on physical and biochemical processes that proceed at characteristic rates at different temperatures. Planting of insect-resistant cultivars of crop plants is a time-honored IPM technique particularly in field crops such as maize, and alfalfa, to which insecticide application is often not economical. Microbial pathogens offer an environmentally benign alternative to chemical insecticides.

The red palm weevil (RPW) Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Olivier), a concealed tissue borer, is a lethal pest of palms and is reported to attack 17 palm species worldwide. Although the weevil was first reported on coconut Cocos nucifera from South Asia, during the last two decades it has gained a foothold on date palm Phoenix dactylifera in several Middle Eastern countries from where it has moved to Africa and Europe, mainly due to the movement of infested planting material. In the Mediterranean region, RPW also severely damages Phoenix canariensis. Currently, the pest is reported in c. 15% of the coconut-growing countries and in nearly 50% of the date palm-growing countries. Infested palms, if not detected early and treated, often die. However, palms in the early stages of attack respond to chemical treatment with insecticide. RPW has been managed in several countries employing an integrated pest management (IPM) strategy including the use of food-baited pheromone traps. Early detection of infestation in the field is important for the success of any RPW-IPM programme. Ideally, movement of planting material from infested plantations within the country and also from one country to another needs to be stopped. Wherever this is not possible, it is essential to implement strict pre- and post-entry quarantine regimes, wherein only pest-free and certified planting material can be transported. The existing pheromone-based IPM programme can be strengthened by intensifying the search for effective natural enemies, coupled with the introduction of resistance in palms to RPW. This article reviews the work done during the last 100 years on various aspects of RPW viz. life history, damage and symptoms of attack, seasonal activity, spatial distribution, host range, IPM and its main components, including trapping adult weevils and chemical control, besides biological control, host plant resistance and male sterile technique.

Host-plant resistance as a management tactic involves both the exploitation of intraspecific variation in genetically based plant resistance to breed crop varieties that support lower populations of herbivores or that better tolerate injury by herbivores and the integration of said varieties with other management tactics such as insecticide applications and biological control. There are several barriers to the increased development and use of resistant cultivars in IPM. Many of these barriers arise from the complex genetic and phenotypic nature of plant resistance. In addition, insufficient attention has been given to the integration of plant resistance with other IPM tactics, and to quantifying the benefits of plant resistance in multi-tactic IPM programs. Three keys to overcoming these barriers are described: increased understanding of the causal bases of plant resistance, increased application of modern genetic tools, and a more quantitative approach to implementing host-plant resistance.

Abstract. Habiba G, Imen K, Rabeh C, Lina L. 2022. A comparative study between biological and chemical control against domestic mosquito larvae. Biodiversitas 23: 6456-6462. Mosquitoes are the first cause of transmission of viral diseases to both humans and animals, as they can transmit some viral diseases. These insects have attracted the attention of specialists, especially in the field of control, because they have controlled their spread in urban areas. Traditionally, they have resorted only to insecticides to eliminate them, and aquatic organisms have long been used to assess the health of aquatic systems. Extensive use of pesticides in agricultural and public health programs has caused many environmental problems and toxic effects on aquatic animals, especially non-target organisms. Hence, this method has negative effects. Later, another method appeared called "biological control", which is based on natural predators. The current study aims to compare the use of biological and chemical control in eliminating mosquito larvae without causing any damage to the ecosystem. Therefore, two studies were conducted. The first is biological control by placing water mites with local mosquito larvae and measuring mite mortality, while the second study deals with chemical control. The rust solution was tested on mosquito larvae at different doses of 0.5mL/L, 2.5mL/L, and 4.5 mL/L. The results proved the effectiveness of biological control compared to chemical control. Finally, these findings will greatly contribute to both the agricultural and medical fields that infect this insect, as well as enrich the literature for future research in mosquitoes.