Biofertilizers for Sustainable Agricultural Practice in Crop Production: A Review

Recently, environmental consciousness and demand of healthy food have increased rapidly. In this context, organic agriculture has been used in all countries. In addition, production area and producers have increased each passing days. “Organic agriculture” also known as “ecological agriculture or biological agriculture” is a production method that aims eco-friendly production, development of plant resistance, and conservations of agriculture soil. Besides, organic agriculture aims to reconstruct of lost natural balance. Organic agriculture bans use of pesticides, hormones, and chemical fertilizers. Especially, organic agriculture gained a commercial dimension with the increasing of consumer demands in 1980s. In organic cotton agriculture, genetically modified cotton seeds are not used. The fundamental of organic cotton agriculture is that cotton seeds are not treated microwave energy and radiation. Organic cotton agriculture consists of all agriculture systems that encourage eco-friendly fiber production. Furthermore, it causes to remove use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and pharmaceuticals. For this reason, organic agriculture causes to increase the fertility of soil. In this chapter, organic agriculture, organic cotton agriculture, comparison conventional cotton agriculture with organic cotton agriculture, environmental impacts of organic cotton agriculture, and use of organic cotton products were investigated.KeywordsOrganic cottonOrganic agricultureEnvironmental impacts

Phosphorus solubilizing bacteria (PSB) and Potassium solubilizing bacteria (KSB) plays a vital role in converting these nutrients into forms that plants can readily absorb, thus enhancing soil fertility and crop yields. The compatibility of phosphorus and potassium solubilizing bacteria with 8 fungicides was tested under laboratory condition. The eight fungicides tested against PSB-1, the Carbendazim 50% WP, Propiconazole 25% EC and Carbendazim 12% + Mancozeb 63% WP were found highly compatible with phosphorus solubilizing bacteria and rest of the five fungicides viz., Mancozeb 75% WP, Zineb 75% WP, Metalaxyl 35 % WS, Azoxystrobin 18.2 % + Difenoconazole 11.4 % SC, Azoxystrobin 11% + Tebuconazole 18.3 % were incompatible with the test bacterium. The treatment T8 (Azoxystrobin 11% + Tebuconazole 18.3 %) were found statistically at par at 48 and 72 hrs of incubation at 50% of recommended dose and recommended dosages. the eight fungicides tested against KSB-2 Carbendazim 50% WP, Propiconazole 25% EC and Carbendazim 12% + Mancozeb 63% WP were found highly compatible with phosphorus solubilizing bacteria and rest of the five fungicides viz., Mancozeb 75% WP, Zineb 75% WP, Metalaxyl 35 % WS, Azoxystrobin 18.2 % + Difenoconazole 11.4 % SC, Azoxystrobin 11% + Tebuconazole 18.3 % were incompatible bacterium with the test bacterium. The treatment T8 (Azoxystrobin 11% + Tebuconazole 18.3% SC) and treatment T1 (Mancozeb 75% WP) were found statistically at par at 48 and 72 hrs of incubation at 50% of recommended dose and recommended dosages.

Due to continuous growth of world population, there is dire need of serious efforts and innovative approaches to meet food demands through sustainable production practices, improvement in supply chain, and control of food wastage. All these efforts should ensure the access to nutritious food to all suffering from hunger and malnutrition. Due to intensive crop cultivation and use of synthetic fertilizers, soil health is seriously deteriorating. However, soil fertility can be improved by incorporating legumes in the cropping system and/or use of rhizobial inoculants, which not only increase nitrogen fixation but also improve soil fertility and crop production through several other attributes such as phosphate solubilization, siderophores production, phytohormones production, enzymes synthesis, and exopolysaccharides production. Moreover, these bacteria can be helpful for improvement in crop production on marginal lands due to their tolerance against various biotic and abiotic stresses. All these characteristics make rhizobia equally important for non-legumes as for legumes. The use of rhizobial inoculants can ensure improvement in crop productivity and environment sustainability by enhancing soil fertility and reduction in use of synthetic chemical fertilizers. Present review focuses on important plant growth-promoting mechanisms of rhizobia and the use of these rhizobia for sustainable crop production through improvement in crop nutrition, physiology, productivity, and stress tolerance of crop plants. The potential of the synergistic use of rhizobia with other soil microorganisms for sustainable agriculture has also been elucidated with examples, followed by their future prospects.

Greenhouse gas emissions from different crop production and management practices in South Africa

The influence of crop and chemical fertilizer combinations on greenhouse gas emissions: A partial life-cycle assessment of fertilizer production and use in China

The volatilization of ammonia is an important nitrogen (N) loss path in agricultural production, which not only results in a loss of economy, but also represents a significant atmospheric pollutant. Volatized ammonia (NH 3 ) from livestock manure and cropping field is associated with ecosystem and public health and can also be an indirect source of greenhouse gases. The rate of ammonia volatilization after application of fertilizers is strongly affected by many factors such as soil properties, temperature as well as the type, application time and mode of nitrogen fertilizers. This work aimed to quantify the losses of N by volatilization of ammonia from synthetic nitrogen fertilizer and composted chicken fertilizer in the volatilization of ammonia (NH 3 ) in winter wheat system by the calibrated Dräger-Tube method. An experiment of four treatments Control (CK), Farmer’s compound fertilizer-NPK (CF), Chicken manure compost (25%) + Urea (75%) (MF) and Chicken manure compost (CM) was conducted, with wheat culture in Baizhai County, Quzhou County, Hebei province, following a delineation of casualized blocks, with three repetitions. The daily variation of the ammonia volatilization flow was not dramatically influenced by the type of fertilizer and its combination, ranging from 0.01 to 0.23 mg N m -2 h -1 in base fertilization and 0.03 to 0.44 mg N m -2 h -1 in topdressing fertilization. The results showed that the cumulative losses of volatilization of NH 3 were significantly affected (P≤ 0.05) by the type of fertilizer and its combination. The cumulative volatilization losses of NH 3 in the treatments CM, CF, MF were 14.30 kg N/ha, 21.58 kg N/ha and 25.79 kg N/ha corresponding to 5.72 %, 8.63%, 10.32 % of the total application rates of N, respectively. Emissions factors of Ammonia were highly variable depending on the type of fertilizer or combination of fertilizer. The results showed that wheat yield has been substantially improved by the application of fertilizers alongside organic fertilizers, with the maximum yield achieved in the combination of synthetic and organic fertilizer of about 10.79 t/ha, whereas the isolated organic and synthetic fertilizer (NPK) was not significantly different at around 10.3 t/ha and 10.4 t/ha respectively. Synthetic and organic fertilizers combined proportions with chemical fertilizers have significantly different performance in the volatilization of ammonia, emissions factors and crop yields. Chicken manure can be applied alone or in combination with 75% chemical nitrogen (urea) to achieve the yield of the similar crop or more as with chemical fertilizer alone, and thus reducing the excessive use of chemical fertilizer and the gaseous loss of nitrogen fertilizer, thus being economically beneficial and environmentally sound. Keywords: Manure; Synthetic fertilizer; Winter wheat; Yield; Ammonia DOI: 10.7176/JBAH/12-10-02 Publication date: May 31 st 2022

Background: Excessive use of chemical fertilizers in a cropping system adversely affects the soil health and crop productivity. To ensure food security, nutritional balance and environmental sustainability, a shift towards eco-friendly organic farming based agricultural systems was imperative. But it also poses challenges for small farmers who owe a small number of animals and they need to purchase bulk organic manures. Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) emerges as an alternate and advocate for low-input, climate-resilient practices which include beejamrit, jeevamrit, achhadana and whapasa. With the aim of increasing the production of the crops per unit area in the present study, different intervals (14, 21 and 28 days) of jeevamrit under natural farming plots and matka khad (30 days interval) under organic farming plots were tested in different maize based intercropping systems. Methods: A field experiment was conducted during kharif 2020 and 2021 at the Zero Budget Natural Farm (ZBNF), Department of Organic Agriculture and Natural Farming, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur. The experiment was comprised of thirteen treatments which were tested in randomized block design with three replications. Result: Among different treatments significantly higher values of yield attributes and yield of maize were recorded under maize + lobia and jeevamrit spray at 14 days interval during kharif 2020 and maize + soybean and jeevamrit spray at 14 days interval during kharif 2021. In case of economics, higher gross returns, net returns and benefit cost ratio were recorded under maize + soybean and jeevamrit spray at 14 days interval during kharif 2020, whereas during kharif 2021, maize + soybean and matka khad spray at 30 days interval resulted in the highest returns.

Bio-fertilizers are ready to use live formulates of beneficial microorganisms which on application to seeds, seedlings or soil, mobilize the availability of nutrients particularly by their biological activity and help to build up the microflora and in turn improve the soil health. They are eco-friendly and play significant role in crop production. Earlier these were mainly used for field crops but now a days these are used for flower crops also. Various bio-fertilizers viz Azotobacter, Azospirillum, phosphorus solubilizing bacteria (PSB) and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi show their suitability for application in different flower crops such as marigold, gerbera, chrysanthemum, carnation etc. Application of chemical fertilizers is although the single largest contributing factor in increasing crop yield in modern farming system, the imbalanced use of these in large quantities have also given rise to associated problems like degradation of soil due to excessive use of chemical fertilizers, soil erosion, soil toxicity etc which in the long run may destroy the entire biological productivity system and consequently the soil may turn into a dead mass of substance. Bio-fertilizers not only help in improving the nutrient uptake by the plants, releasing of growth hormones and antibiotics but also improve the quality of produce along with reduced cost of production.

Organic agriculture is a production system that aims at sustaining healthy soils, ecosystems and people by prohibiting the application of synthetic pesticides and fertilisers in crop production and by emphasising animal welfare in livestock breeding. This article shows that organic agriculture is characterised by higher soil quality and reduced nutrient or pesticide leaching compared to nonorganic agriculture, but that positive effects on biological control services or emission of greenhouse gases are less evident. Yield gaps between organic and nonorganic agriculture are on average 20%, but vary between crops and regions. Given the environmental risks that are associated with intensive, nonorganic agriculture, farming practices should be modified to decrease risks. Organic agriculture can be a more environmentally friendly alternative, but individual farming practices need improvement to meet the demands of a growing human population. Further growth of the organic farming sector will contribute to reduce the negative environmental impact of agriculture. Key Concepts Organic agriculture leads to higher soil quality and reduced nutrient and pesticide leaching compared to nonorganic agriculture. Organic agriculture may lead to a higher provision of ecosystem services and reduced soil erosion compared to nonorganic agriculture, but more research is needed to address these impacts. Organic agriculture leads to higher greenhouse gas emissions if considered per unit product and, on average, has 20% lower yields than intensive, nonorganic agriculture. The current situation of nutrient supply to crop plants in organic agriculture is often not optimal and this is a major challenge for future research. Intensive, nonorganic agriculture is based on the application of pesticides that cause risks to human health, and organic agriculture can act as an environmentally friendly alternative.

The organic amendments that were witnessed in the “green phase” during the 1960s boosted food production, but at the expense of environmental sustainability. These methods increased food production but ultimately disturbed the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil over years of use. The beneficial soil organisms were exploited and the power of “biological resistance” in crops was reduced, making them more prone to pests and diseases. As a result, no part of the world is left free of harmful pesticide residues today. Over time, it was realized that these residues are toxic for soil and society. Use of chemical fertilizers has not only led to sensational increases in the quality and quantity of crops, but has also resulted in the alteration of the total soil profile resulting in a reduction of beneficial microbes leading to an imbalance in ecology. This has ultimately devastated the resources of farmers, who are the building the path of our nation. Excessive use of non-renewable energy chemicals often tends to destroy the physiochemical properties of soil, reduce friendly predators, and enhance residual hazards in seeds and to human health and the environment. The use of beneficial microbial inoculants along with organic manures is considered to be an alternative requirement for crops. The technological approaches to the use of organic manures and biofertilizers in farming have proved to be effective means of upgrading soil structure, increasing water-holding capacity, enhancing soil fertility, and increasing crop yields. On the whole it can be deduced from the present studies that by integrating correct combinations of organic production technologies, production levels comparable to conventional practices can be achieved in tomato crops with improved soil-nutrient status and productivity.

Organic farming is a farming activity that is familiar with the environment. Western agricultural experts define organic farming as the law of return, which means a system that returns all types of organic matter to the soil, both in the form of residues and plant and livestock wastes which then aim to feed the plants. The philosophy is to give food to the soil then the land will provide food for plants (Sutanto, 2002). Organic dragon fruit farming in Pamekasan Regency has been running for 5 years, so the decision of organic farmers is a very important factor in the application of dragon fruit organic farming. There are two indicators that influence farmers’ decisions in applying dragon fruit organic farming, namely driving forces and pressures. The research method used is DPSIR (Driving Forces-Pressures-State-Impact-Responses). However, in this study limiting analysis is only an element of Driving Forces and Pressures. The way to retrieve data is by in-depth study or in-depth interviews with 34 organic dragon fruit farmers. The results showed that there were 6 things that became driving forces of farmers’ decisions in implementing dragon fruit organic farming, namely: (1) Unoptimal Use of Agricultural Land, (2) Lack of Irrigation Infrastructure and Management, (3) Lack of Farmers Knowledge about Pest and Disease Management, (4) Low Agricultural Quality due to Excessive Use of Chemical Fertilizers and Pesticides, (5) Respondents and Experiences of Organic Dragon Fruit Farming Education Levels are Short Term and (6) Lack of Infrastructure Availability to Support Organic Fruit Farming Fields Dragon. Meanwhile Pressures that influence farmers’ decisions in applying dragon fruit organic farming are: (1) Ability to reduce the use of chemicals, (2) The use of organic matter is still lacking, (3) Lack of effort to prevent soil erosion and ( 4) Lack of awareness to increase land security capacity.

The modernization of agriculture along with the “Green Revolution” transforms the agriculture practices in a new dimension where the traditional knowledge and techniques were replaced by the new technology to increase the productivity to feed the growing population. This Green Revolution changed the country status from importer to self-sufficient. Traditional source of nutrients was replaced by the synthetic and chemical fertilizers. Undoubtedly the inorganic fertilizers are keys behind the increasing productivity to a greater scale. However, inappropriate use of these chemical/synthetic fertilizers, unscientific management, over-utilization, etc. lead to soil and environmental pollution as well as deterioration of the soil quality. Moreover, continuous use of these fertilizers leads to toxicity as well as deficiency of some major and minor nutrients. In the scenario of global climate change, the unscientific use of these chemical inputs are major threats to environment. To reduce or minimize these ill effects, it is high time to shift the agriculture system from inorganic to organic mode to sustain the soil and environments for a longer period. Side by side, the use of chemical fertilizers should be minimized or avoided depending upon the cropping condition and demand of the system. Organic farming system and combined system (organic and inorganic or INM) both can promote agriculture toward the reducing use of chemical fertilizers, and that system must be popularized. Organic as well as INM have several advantages over the convention (chemical-based) system in terms of soil quality, environmental pollution, crop productivity, as well as the quality of produce. This chapter aims to focus on the use of organic fertilizers (alone or in combination) for better soil and environmental management. However, the organic system also has the several limitations that must be addressed, and proper management must be evaluated to promote the organic production system. The popularization of the technology and techniques is governed by different factors, so the organic farming practices will be adopted by the farmers only when the technology will reach to the farmers with the clear message. Organic farming or organic nutrient management not only reduces the input cost but also provides an opportunity to recycle the waste unused materials, crop and plant residues to reduce the soil, water, and environment pollution. The use of organic fertilizers will improve the soil carbon status and soil quality which help in improving, carbon sequestration. With the several advantages associated with organic nutrient management, still proper demonstration, awareness, and training are required to popularize among the farmers and to get the best benefit out of it.

Energy use and greenhouse gas emissions in organic and conventional farming systems in the Netherlands

Biofertilizers are now an effective way to increase crop yield and soil health in organic farming. Because of their numerous advantages, such as their capacity for nitrogen fixation, solubilizing phosphorus, and fostering soil microbial activity, the use of biofertilizers is becoming more and more common. This paper explores the benefits of using biofertilizers and their several kinds that are available, with their possible application in organic farming. Reduced reliance on synthetic fertilizers, enhanced soil fertility, and higher crop yields are all advantages of using biofertilizers in organic farming. Moreover, by using fewer chemical fertilizers, the usage of biofertilizers can contribute to lowering the environmental pollution. The author concludes that biofertilizers could be a practical and long-term answer for organic farmers who seek to improve soil health and crop productivity.

This review provides an introduction to organic farming, its history and concepts, organic certification systems and governmental support, impacts to the environment and food security, the quality of organic food, and the impact of organic farming on human health. Organic farming is a holistic approach to agriculture and food systems that is based on agroecosystem health, soil fertility, reduction of inputs, and locally to regionally adapted farming systems. The first organic ideas were developed after World War I in Europe as an alternative to the existing conventional farming systems which induced rapid and crucial social and environmental changes in rural areas. Today, organic farming is growing rapidly on a global scale, with around 370 million hectares currently under certified organic management and a turnover of organic products amounting to 60 billion US dollars. Given that organic farming has environmental benefits, some governments are subsidizing organic farmers, while others establish legally valid organic standards that must be followed to enhance consumer trust in organic labeling.Many recent studies comparing organic and conventional farming have been performed, although almost exclusively in North America and Europe. These studies show that environmental impacts of organic farming are less than those from conventional farming, but the conclusions depend on the different farming systems used for comparison and on the parameters that were assessed. For soil parameters such as organic matter or aggregate stability, the effect from organic farming systems was positive compared to conventional farming systems, although contrary results exist in some cases. For nitrate leaching, study results are diverse and depend on production systems (animal husbandry, crop production, proportion of legumes). For greenhouse gas emissions, organic farming provides lower emissions on a per hectare basis compared to conventional farming, but the same or higher emissions on a product basis because of lower yields. If the yield gap between organic and conventional farming systems could be reduced, the potential for a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions would rise. Organic farming performed better with regard to biodiversity compared to conventional farming for most taxa assessed. The impact of organic farming on food security cannot be clearly assessed because studies on the performance of organic farming in developing countries are lacking. Currently, some authors argue that organic farmers in developing countries profit from organic production if they can realize a price premium for the products and reduce input costs.One of the most important consumer motivations for the purchase of organic products is their health benefits. Organic products performed better than conventional products for different food compounds by containing less pesticide residues that are harmful to human health, having more desirable bioactive substances, and in the case of organic meat and milk, having more desirable fatty-acid composition. Animal experiments have shown positive health impacts from organic food. Several studies conducted on rats have indicated higher immune system reactivity in organically fed rats compared to conventionally fed animals. Similar results have been obtained for chickens and cows.The rapid growth of organic farming also can be a threat to future development if the organic sector cannot maintain its integrity and credibility. Organic products are available not only in farmer markets but in on-farm shops and organic food stores and are becoming increasingly present in conventional supermarkets. This involves long supply-chains, large suppliers, as well as processing, distribution, and trade via conventional processors and wholesalers. This conventionalization of organic food-chains may challenge the credibility of the organic sector as an environmentally friendly and socially fair form of agriculture. As the organic sector depends very much on this credibility, the question of how to retain this authenticity will be a major concern for the future.